NASA's Program Research Articles

ENABLING EARTH SCIENCE MEASUREMENTS WITH NASA UAS CAPABILITIES

Abstract. NASA’s Airborne Science Program (ASP) maintains a fleet of manned and unmanned aircraft for Earth Science measurements and observations. The unmanned aircraft systems (UAS) range in size from very large (Global Hawks) to medium (SIERRA, Viking) and relatively small (DragonEye). UAS fly from very low (boundary layer) to very high altitude (stratosphere). NASA also supports science and applied science projects using UAS operated by outside companies or agencies. The aircraft and accompanying data and support systems have been used in numerous investigations. For example, Global Hawks have been used to study both hurricanes and atmospheric composition. SIERRA has been used to study ice, earthquake faults, and coral reefs. DragonEye is being used to measure volcanic emissions. As a foundation for NASA’s UAS work, Altair and Ikhana not only flew wildfires in the US, but also provided major programs for the development of real-time data download and processing capabilities. In 2014, an advanced L-band Synthetic Aperture Radar flew for the first time on Global Hawk, demonstrating UAVSAR, which has been flying successfully on a manned aircraft. This paper focuses on two topics: 1) results of a NASA program called UAS-Enabled Earth Science, in which three science teams flew UAS to demonstrate platform and sensor performance, airspace integration, and applied science results from the data collected; 2) recent accomplishments with the high altitude, long-duration Global Hawks. The challenges experienced with flying UAS are discussed. Recent upgrades to data processing, communications, tracking and flight planning systems are described.

Cloud Photogrammetry from Space

Abstract. The most commonly used method for satellite cloud top height (CTH) compares brightness temperature of the cloud with the atmospheric temperature profile. Because of the uncertainties of this method, we propose a photogrammetric approach. As clouds can move with high velocities, even instruments with multiple cameras are not appropriate for accurate CTH estimation. Here we present two solutions. The first is based on the parallax between data retrieved from geostationary (SEVIRI, HRV band; 1000 m spatial resolution) and polar orbiting satellites (MODIS, band 1; 250 m spatial resolution). The procedure works well if the data from both satellites are retrieved nearly simultaneously. However, MODIS does not retrieve the data at exactly the same time as SEVIRI. To compensate for advection in the atmosphere we use two sequential SEVIRI images (one before and one after the MODIS retrieval) and interpolate the cloud position from SEVIRI data to the time of MODIS retrieval. CTH is then estimated by intersection of corresponding lines-of-view from MODIS and interpolated SEVIRI data. The second method is based on NASA program Crew Earth observations from the International Space Station (ISS). The ISS has a lower orbit than most operational satellites, resulting in a shorter minimal time between two images, which is needed to produce a suitable parallax. In addition, images made by the ISS crew are taken by a full frame sensor and not a push broom scanner that most operational satellites use. Such data make it possible to observe also short time evolution of clouds.

Usability of a Computer-Based Problem Solving Treatment for Isolated Older Adults Adapted from a NASA Program for Long Duration Missions

Usability of a Computer-Based Problem Solving Treatment for Isolated Older Adults Adapted from a NASA Program for Long Duration Missions

The fermi paradox is neither Fermi's nor a paradox.

The so-called Fermi paradox claims that if technological life existed anywhere else, we would see evidence of its visits to Earth--and since we do not, such life does not exist, or some special explanation is needed. Enrico Fermi, however, never published anything on this topic. On the one occasion he is known to have mentioned it, he asked "Where is everybody?"--apparently suggesting that we do not see extraterrestrials on Earth because interstellar travel may not be feasible, but not suggesting that intelligent extraterrestrial life does not exist or suggesting its absence is paradoxical. The claim "they are not here; therefore they do not exist" was first published by Michael Hart, claiming that interstellar travel and colonization of the Galaxy would be inevitable if intelligent extraterrestrial life existed, and taking its absence here as proof that it does not exist anywhere. The Fermi paradox appears to originate in Hart's argument, not Fermi's question. Clarifying the origin of these ideas is important, because the Fermi paradox is seen by some as an authoritative objection to searching for evidence of extraterrestrial intelligence--cited in the U.S. Congress as a reason for killing NASA's SETI program on one occasion. But evidence indicates that it misrepresents Fermi's views, misappropriates his authority, deprives the actual authors of credit, and is not a valid paradox.

Integrated modeling of aerosol, cloud, precipitation and land processes at satellite-resolved scales

With support from NASA's Modeling and Analysis Program, we have recently developed the NASA Unified-Weather Research and Forecasting model (NU-WRF). NU-WRF is an observation-driven integrated modeling system that represents aerosol, cloud, precipitation and land processes at satellite-resolved scales. “Satellite-resolved” scales (roughly 1–25 km), bridge the continuum between local (microscale), regional (mesoscale) and global (synoptic) processes. NU-WRF is a superset of the National Center for Atmospheric Research (NCAR) Advanced Research WRF (ARW) dynamical core model, achieved by fully integrating the GSFC Land Information System (LIS, already coupled to WRF), the WRF/Chem enabled version of the GOddard Chemistry Aerosols Radiation Transport (GOCART) model, the Goddard Satellite Data Simulation Unit (G-SDSU), and custom boundary/initial condition preprocessors into a single software release, with source code available by agreement with NASA/GSFC. Full coupling between aerosol, cloud, precipitation and land processes is critical for predicting local and regional water and energy cycles.

Advances in Shell Buckling: Theory and Experiments

In a recent feature article in this journal, coauthored by Gert van der Heijden, I described the static-dynamic analogy and its role in understanding the localized post-buckling of shell-like structures, looking exclusively at integrable systems. We showed the true significance of the Maxwell energy criterion load in predicting the sudden onset of "shock sensitivity" to lateral disturbances. The present paper extends the survey to cover nonintegrable systems, such as thin compressed shells. These exhibit spatial chaos, generating a multiplicity of localized paths (and escape routes) with complex snaking and laddering phenomena. The final theoretical contribution shows how these concepts relate to the response and energy barriers of an axially compressed cylindrical shell. After surveying NASA's current shell-testing programme, a new nondestructive technique is proposed to estimate the "shock sensitivity" of a laboratory specimen that is in a compressed metastable state before buckling. A probe is used to measure the nonlinear load-deflection characteristic under a rigidly applied lateral displacement. Sensing the passive resisting force, it can be plotted in real time against the displacement, displaying an equilibrium path along which the force rises to a maximum and then decreases to zero: having reached the free state of the shell that forms a mountain-pass in the potential energy. The area under this graph gives the energy barrier against lateral shocks. The test is repeated at different levels of the overall compression. If a symmetry-breaking bifurcation is encountered on the path, computer simulations show how this can be suppressed by a controlled secondary probe tuned to deliver zero force on the shell.

Time-resolved Spectroscopy of Plasma Flash from Hypervelocity Impact on Debrisat

Time-resolved spectroscopic measurements were made on the intense plasma flash that accompanied a hypervelocity impact on “DebriSat” conducted in April 2014 at the Arnold Engineering Development Complex (AEDC) in Tennessee. The DebriSat project was a unique hypervelocity event aimed at simulating an on-orbit destructive collision of a modern satellite with a hypervelocity projectile in a single strike. Collaborators on the project included NASA's Orbital Debris Program Office at NASA Johnson Space Center (JSC), US Air Force Space and Missile Systems Center (SMC), The Aerospace Corporation, The University of Florida, and AEDC. The primary hypervelocity test object, DebriSat, was a 56kg structure representative of a modern LEO spacecraft, assembled at University of Florida following design guidance provided by Aerospace's Concept Design Center. It comprised a hexagonal body with an arrangement of seven compartmentalized bays. The main panels and the structural ribs between the bays were constructed from Al 5052 honeycomb and carbon fiber composite face sheets. Each bay had a set of structures with components intended to represent those used in a modern satellite design. The AEDC projectile was a 570g nylon-aluminum cylinder travelling at 6.8km/s. An analysis of the first several frames of the DebriSat flash shows that the rate of radial expansion of the plume decreased from 4750 m/s at t = 0 to 2250 m/s at t = 156μs. Time-resolved spectral measurements were conducted on the plasma flash with multiple frames acquired with a 10μs gating interval. Numerous emission lines were observed and were consistent with the materials of structural components located in the specific bay of DebriSat that was impacted. A background was observed in all the spectral frames and could be fitted to a blackbody temperature of ∼ 2900K. A detailed description of the plasma flash and its spectroscopic investigation is presented.

America COMPETES Act's effect on NASA's Education and Public Outreach Programs

NASA's Education and Public Outreach program performances have historically been poorly evaluated. The programs are fragmented and difficult to track which contributes to the difficulties faced by the United States' struggling education system. In response, the America Creating Opportunities to Meaningfully Promote Excellence in Technology, Education and Science Reauthorization Act of 2010 (America COMPETES) was passed in an effort to streamline federal efforts in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Math education (STEM) and keep the American technical workforce competitive in the global market.America COMPETES' impact on NASA's role in STEM education made little positive changes. The Act's requirements perpetuate misguided STEM education evaluation methods. Funds appropriation marginalize NASA from meaningful K-12 education interactions. Portions of the implementation steps are counter-productive to NASA's public image.

Lindstrom Receives 2013 Ocean Sciences Award: Citation

Eric J. Lindstrom's record over the last 3 decades exemplifies both leadership and service to the ocean science community. Advancement of ocean science not only depends on innovative research but is enabled by support of government agencies. As NASA program scientist for physical oceanography for the last 15 years, Eric combined his proven scientific knowledge and skilled leadership abilities with understanding the inner workings of our government bureaucracy, for the betterment of all. He is a four‐time NASA headquarters medalist for his achievements in developing a unified physical oceanography program that is well integrated with those of other federal agencies.

Knowledge–based dynamic scheduling and decision support

The purpose of this article is to illustrate the role that knowledge–based system technologies can play in the development and implementation of more effective decision–support systems. The prototyping of a knowledge–based decision–support system (KBDSS) for supporting the complex, resource–constrained problem of scheduling subsystems and experiments for NASA's space station programme is discussed and serves to highlight various concepts. The dynamic payload scheduling (DYPAS) system, unlike most previous scheduling approaches, is capable of handling the many dynamic elements which characterise a broader class of scheduling problems such as those related to flexible manufacturing systems and computer–integrated manufacturing environments. Also, the integration of knowledge–based decision support, and operations research technologies into a more generic knowledge–based, scheduling shell is discussed, as well as, directions for future research for accomplishment of this shell.

Book Review: A History of Telescopes

A HISTORY OF TELESCOPES 400 Years of Astronomical Telescopes: A Review of History, Science and Technology. Edited by Bernhard Brandi, Remdo Stuik and Jeannette Katgert-Merkelijn (Springer, Dordrecht, 2010). Pp. xvi + 535. $179. ISBN 978-90-481-2232-5.This wonderful book, with experts describing telescopes and related astronomical facilities from before Galileo into the twenty-first century, will stand the test of time. The series of articles are from a conference held in Leiden in 2008 to mark the oncoming International Year of Astronomy. As the conference organizer Bernhard Brandi writes in his preface, almost all the invited speakers accepted, making the conference important indeed for the history of astronomy.The 104 pages in the section on the History of Optical Telescopes begins with Albert Van Helden starting with Lipperhey, Giorgio Strano describing the details of Galileo's own telescopes, and Jim Bennett bringing us up to Lord Rosse. James Lequeux discusses the great nineteenth-century refractors. Leiden Observatory, where the conference was held, was founded in 1633, making it 380 years old. My own Hopkins Observatory of Williams College, the oldest in the United States, was founded 175 years ago, making it almost half as old. We gave Alvan Clark his start, commissioning him to build us a telescope, his first, installed here in 1852, though his 7 starter refractor doesn't rival his 40 magnum opus, listed along with other large refractors in a four-page table in Lequeux's entry. David DeVorkin and Patrick McCray then bring us through the increasingly bigger reflectors of the twentieth century.The 117 pages in the section on the History of Non-Optical Telescopes present Woody Sullivan on radio telescopes, George Rieke on infrared telescopes, Riccardo Giacconi on x-ray telescopes, Klaus Pinkau on gamma-ray telescopes, Heinrich Volk and Konrad Bemlohr on higher-energy gamma-ray telescopes (the only entry with colour photographs), Oskar von der Luhe on solar telescopes, and Atsuto Suzuki and Masatoshi Koshiba on neutrino telescopes. It is too bad that there is no way of keeping this volume continually updated with, for example, the 2013 report of extremely high energy neutrinos detected with the IceCube array buried in Antarctic ice.The 60 pages in the following section include a miscellany of Eric H0g on astrometry (as we await the launching of Gaia to supersede the Tycho catalogue from Hipparcos that H0g supervised), Malcolm Longair on historical case studies including the Hertzsprung-Russell diagram for which we celebrate its centenary in 2014, Detlev Koschny on amateur telescopes, and C. R. [Bob] O'Dell with a behind-the-scenes history of how the Hubble Space Telescope came to be. (In section V, Martin Harwit continues the story with the unofficial history of NASA's continued program called Great Observatories.)In the 124-page section on Fundamental Telescope Technologies we learn from Lothar Noethe about telescope mirrors from casting to adaptive optics, Pierre Lena more about adaptive optics, Jason Spyromilio about telescope mounts and domes, Andreas Quirrenbach about the history of astronomical interferometry, Ian Robson and Harry van der Laan about submillimetre telescopes (though the opening of ALMA is too recent to be included), James Cordes about future radio telescopes including plans for SKA, Bernd Aschenbach about x-ray telescope design and performance, and Neil Gehrels and John Cannizzo about gamma-ray telescopes. …

Tribute to Kenneth McKechnie Eldred

I first met Ken while at the Boeing Co and he was Vice President at the Western Electro-Acoustics Laboratory in Los Angeles. I met him again at Wright Patterson Air Force Base, Dayton, Ohio, where he was Chief of Physical Acoustics under Henning von Gierke. He recruited me to come to Huntsville, Alabama, to join the new branch of Wyle that Marshall Space Flight Center wanted for rocket noise programs supporting NASA's rocket noise programs. To augment this Wyle staff, Ken recruited several outstanding acoustical scientists from Southampton University in the UK, including the late Martin Lowson. More on this in Richard Potter's paper. Ken's Wyle staff worked with the Federal Aviation Administration, the Boeing Co. and Lockheed Aircraft in pursuing the environmentally failed development of the SST. Ken supported the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Office of Noise Abatement and Control (ONAC) and guided Wyle in their preparation of key documents on Noise Policy. He left Wyle to join Bolt, Beranek and Newman (BBN) and later left BBN to form Ken Eldred Engineering. He was a Fellow of ASA, received the ASA Silver Medal in Noise in 1994, and was active on ASA Standards committees, the National Research Council, the Society of Automotive Engineers, and the National Academy of Sciences. The other speakers will discuss other aspects of Ken's many contributions, including those for the Institute of Noise Control Engineering (INCE).

Mousetronaut by M. Kelly

Kelly, Mark. Mousetronaut. New York: Simon & Schuster, 2012.Several mice are training hard in the hope of being chosen to take part in a NASA space flight. Meteor the Mouse is much smaller than the others, but his hard work is recognized by the Shuttle Commander who chooses him as one of the six lucky mice to board the shuttle! Only Meteor adapts well to zero-gravity. He saves the mission when, because of his small size, he is able to rescue the key to the control panel when it gets stuck between two monitors.While kind of cute, especially when you learn the story is loosely based on a real mouse, I was left underwhelmed. It is a picture book, so the story is very short and more suited to the younger children in the recommended age range of 4-8. There’s no mention of why the mice were taken to space in the first place. While the story has a somewhat positive message in that sometimes the underdog can save the day, it wasn’t the fact that Meteor was a hard worker that led to his success but merely the fact that he was small.The illustrations by C.F. Payne vary in their appeal. The images of the space shuttle at lift-off and the astronauts floating in their spacesuits have an authentic feel, and the facial expressions of the mice in space are priceless. The human faces, however, are more like caricatures for an older audience with their sometimes oddly shaped faces and exaggerated noses. It was great to see a female among the astronauts, but the use of shading made her look as though she had as much five o’clock shadow as the men.The best part of the work is the afterword where the author, a retired astronaut, shares facts about the NASA program and life in space. Kids will learn some fun details, like that astronauts have to swallow their toothpaste! There is a list of recommended reading for further information, as well as a list of websites with videos or interactive games. This was the first installment of what might become a series of adventures (Mousetronaut Goes to Mars was released October 2013) so one hopes for more riveting plots in the further stories.Recommended with Reservations - 2 out of 4 starsReviewer: Trish ChatterleyTrish is a Public Services Librarian for the John W. Scott Health Sciences Library at the University of Alberta. In her free time she enjoys dancing, gardening, and reading books of all types.

Chelle L. Gentemann Receives 2013 Charles S. Falkenberg Award: Response

Receiving the 2013 Charles S. Falkenberg Award of the American Geophysical Union came completely as a surprise, wonderful but humbling. It is attributable to those who have made my work possible. Peter Minnett is first on the list. He is a great friend and colleague, an example for us all of how to conduct scientific research. Unstintingly generous with his time, resources, and ideas, he always puts scientific advancement ahead of personal gain. Eric Lindstrom, program manager for NASA's physical oceanography program, has been a role model on how to run large projects and still stay focused on scientific results. His support of this project from the beginning has been instrumental in its success. I also have been lucky enough to work with Frank Wentz, one of the smartest scientists I know. My husband, David White, has put up with much as I have focused on this work, as have our 3‐year‐old sons, Austin and Bennett. The rest of my family has given their support, love, and inspiration. I wish that my grandfather, who encouraged my interest in science, could be here to share this honor.

Changes in Mouse Thymus and Spleen after Return from the STS-135 Mission in Space

Our previous results with flight (FLT) mice showed abnormalities in thymuses and spleens that have potential to compromise immune defense mechanisms. In this study, the organs were further evaluated in C57BL/6 mice after Space Shuttle Atlantis returned from a 13-day mission. Thymuses and spleens were harvested from FLT mice and ground controls housed in similar animal enclosure modules (AEM). Organ and body mass, DNA fragmentation and expression of genes related to T cells and cancer were determined. Although significance was not obtained for thymus mass, DNA fragmentation was greater in the FLT group (P<0.01). Spleen mass alone and relative to body mass was significantly decreased in FLT mice (P<0.05). In FLT thymuses, 6/84 T cell-related genes were affected versus the AEM control group (P<0.05; up: IL10, Il18bp, Il18r1, Spp1; down: Ccl7, IL6); 15/84 cancer-related genes had altered expression (P<0.05; up: Casp8, FGFR2, Figf, Hgf, IGF1, Itga4, Ncam1, Pdgfa, Pik3r1, Serpinb2, Sykb; down: Cdc25a, E2F1, Mmp9, Myc). In the spleen, 8/84 cancer-related genes were affected in FLT mice compared to AEM controls (P<0.05; up: Cdkn2a; down: Birc5, Casp8, Ctnnb1, Map2k1, Mdm2, NFkB1, Pdgfa). Pathway analysis (apoptosis signaling and checkpoint regulation) was used to map relationships among the cancer–related genes. The results showed that a relatively short mission in space had a significant impact on both organs. The findings also indicate that immune system aberrations due to stressors associated with space travel should be included when estimating risk for pathologies such as cancer and infection and in designing appropriate countermeasures. Although this was the historic last flight of NASA’s Space Shuttle Program, exploration of space will undoubtedly continue.

The version 8.6 SBUV ozone data record: An overview

AbstractUnder a NASA program to produce long‐term data records from instruments on multiple satellites, data from a series of nine Solar Backscatter Ultraviolet (SBUV and SBUV/2) instruments have been reprocessed to create a coherent ozone time series. Data from the BUV instrument on Nimbus 4, SBUV on Nimbus 7, and SBUV/2 instruments on NOAA 9, 11, 14, 16, 17, 18, and 19 covering the period 1970–1972 and 1979–2011 were used to create a long‐term data set. The goal is an ozone Earth Science Data Record—a consistent, calibrated ozone time series that can be used for trend analyses and other studies. In order to create this ozone data set, the radiances were adjusted and used to reprocess the entire data records for each of the nine instruments. Interinstrument comparisons during periods of overlap as well as comparisons with data from other satellite and ground‐based instruments were used to evaluate the consistency of the record and make calibration adjustments as needed. Additional improvements in this version 8.6 processing included the use of the Brion, Daumont, and Malicet ozone cross sections, and a cloud‐height climatology derived from Aura OMI measurements. Validation of the reprocessed ozone shows that total column ozone is consistent with the Brewer/Dobson network to within about 1% for the new time series. Comparisons with MLS, SAGE, sondes, and lidar show that ozone at individual levels in the stratosphere is generally consistent to within 5%.

NASA Computational Case Study: The Flight of Friendship 7

In this case study, we study a method for computing the position of an Earth-orbiting spacecraft as a function of time. As an exercise, we compute the position of John Glenn's Mercury spacecraft Friendship 7 as it orbited the Earth during the third flight of NASA's Mercury program.

The Epistemic Integrity of NASA Practices in the Space Shuttle Program

This article presents an account of epistemic integrity and uses it to demonstrate that the epistemic integrity of different kinds of practices in NASA's Space Shuttle Program was limited. We focus on the following kinds of practices: (1) research by working engineers, (2) review by middle-level managers, and (3) communication with the public. We argue that the epistemic integrity of these practices was undermined by production pressure at NASA, i.e., the pressure to launch an unreasonable amount of flights per year. Finally, our findings are used to develop some potential strategies to protect epistemic integrity in aerospace science.

Editorial Changes at the Journal of Molecular Evolution

On January 1, 2013 Martin Kreitman stepped down as editor-in-chief (EIC) of the Journal of Molecular Evolution after 15 years in this role. During this time the rich tradition of this journal has continued, and the readership base has broadened. These have been exciting times in the fields and sub-fields that connect to the topic of molecular evolution. The human genome was completely sequenced, and we have seen an explosion of genomic-wide data, the advent of high-throughput sequencing, fascinating developments in the interface between development and evolution (‘‘evo-devo’’), the burgeoning of an understanding of the role of small RNAs in gene regulation, rapid advances in high-throughput X-ray crystallization-based structure determination of both proteins and nucleic acids, sweeping advances in computational hardware and techniques, and the entrenchment of the Internet as the means by which data is stored, analyzed, and shared, and by which scientific publishing is accomplished. Through all of this, Marty has strove to bring the highest quality research to JME, but for personal reasons has chosen to step down as EIC and focus on other issues. I will become the new EIC for JME after having been an associate editor (AE) with the journal since 1996. I received my B.S. in Chemistry from the University of California, Berkeley in 1984 and stayed on to obtain a Master’s degree with Tom Jukes in the Space Sciences Laboratory at Berkeley in 1986, studying the evolution of the genetic code. I was Tom’s last graduate student and first became exposed to the rich field of molecular evolution—and to JME—during my stay in Tom’s lab. I then moved to UCLA to be one of the first Center for the Study of Evolution and the Origins of Life (CSEOL) Fellows at UCLA, a program founded by J. William Schopf. There I worked with Bob Wayne and Chuck Taylor on the molecular population genetics of canids and received my Ph.D. in 1990. From there I moved on to be a post-doctoral fellow at The Scripps Research Institute in La Jolla, CA, working with Jerry Joyce on the in vitro evolution of the Tetrahymena ribozyme. I then did a second post-doc with Mike Lynch at the University of Oregon studying phylogenetics and speciation in the freshwater microcrustacean Daphnia. After two tenure-track appointments at other universities, I arrived at Portland State University in Portland, Oregon in 2001 where I am now a full professor of Chemistry. My current research focuses on the use of catalytic RNAs to study self-replication, molecular cooperation, and the advent and evolution of genetic information during the origins of life on the Earth. Several Ph.D. students have graduated from my lab at Portland State, supported by funding by through various NASA programs such as Exobiology and Evolutionary Biology. This editorial change marks only the second one in JME’s history. The journal was founded in 1971, when Conrad Springer offered Emile Zuckerkandl, who along with Linus Pauling had originated the idea of the molecular clock, the position of EIC (Bernardi 2012). Zuckerkandl accepted, and with a staff of four editors and 41 editorial board members, the journal published its first issue in the summer of 1971. Among the four editors was Dick Dickerson, a pioneer in the study of DNA structure and coincidentally on my Ph.D. committee at UCLA. Another of the editors was Jack Lester King, co-author with Tom Jukes of a classic 1969 paper entitled ‘‘Non-Darwinian Evolution’’ (King and Jukes 1969), which helped to define the study of molecular evolution. The editorial board N. Lehman (&) Department of Chemistry, Portland State University, Portland, OR 97207, USA e-mail: jme1@pdx.edu; niles@pdx.edu

Doing the impossible: George E. Mueller and the running of NASA's human spaceflight program

Doing the impossible: George E. Mueller and the running of NASA's human spaceflight program