Concentrations Of NaOCl Research Articles

Synergistic effects of NaOCl and ultrasound combination on the reduction of Escherichia coli and Bacillus cereus in raw laver.

The current study investigated the synergistic effects of NaOCl (50-200 ppm)/ultrasound (37 kHz, 380 W for 5-100 min) combination on the reduction of Escherichia coli and Bacillus cereus in raw laver. The synergistic reductions were not dependent on concentrations of NaOCl and times of ultrasound. Synergistic reduction ranged from 0.1 to 0.5 log10 colony-forming units (CFU)/g and 0.1-1.1 log10 CFU/g, respectively, for E. coli and B. cereus, with the largest synergistic reduction in the combination of 200 ppm NaOCl and 60-min ultrasound. Moreover, significant differences of "L" (lightness), "a" (redness), and "b" (yellowness) were not observed in combined with 50-200 ppm NaOCl and 100-min ultrasound compared to those in raw laver treated by only 100-min ultrasound. The results in the current study indicate that the combined treatment of 200 ppm NaOCl and 60-min ultrasound could be regarded a potential optimum hurdle approach in the seaweed production, processing, and distribution process to enhance seaweed safety.

Cytotoxicity of peracetic acid in L929 fibroblasts (1139.2)

Recently peracetic acid (PA) has been reported in the dental literature as a possible root canal irrigating solution. It has the advantage of bringing together in one product antibacterial activity and ability to remove smear layer. For selection of root canal irrigating solution it should take into account not only its therapeutic benefits, but also the possible cytotoxic effects, since it can contact the periapical tissues. The aim of this study was to evaluate the cytotoxicity of PA at different concentrations in comparison with 2.5% sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl) through the study of the L929 fibroblasts metabolism and the cytoskeleton. L929 fibroblasts in culture were exposed to different concentrations of PA and NaOCl and to the culture medium for 24 hours (control). After this period, it was evaluated the cell metabolism by methyl tetrazolium (MTT) assay and the cytoskeleton by staining actin and α‐tubulin. Data were analyzed by two‐way ANOVA and Bonferroni post test (α = 0.05). The solutions had an effect on cell viability/metabolism in a dose‐dependent manner. The cell viability decreased progressively as the concentration of irrigating solutions was increased. 0.5% AP showed similar cytotoxicity to 2.5% NaOCl (p>0.5); the AP at concentrations of 1%, 2% and 2.5% showed higher cytotoxicity than 2.5% NaOCl (p<0.5). The cytoskeleton suffered progressive structural changes as the concentrations of the solutions were increased. It was concluded that the AP is more cytotoxic than NaOCl. However, further studies evaluating other cell parameters and employing other PA‐based solutions need to be performed.Grant Funding Source: Supported by São Paulo Research Foundation (FAPESP) #2012/18203‐2

A New Method to Assess Available Chlorine in Small Volumes of Liquid

IntroductionThere is no robust and simple way to quantify available chlorine from small volumes such as human root canals. Therefore, a new method was developed and assessed. MethodsStandardized size-40 paper points were soaked in a 15% (w/v) potassium iodide solution for 1 minute. Subsequently, the paper points were placed in an incubator and dried at 110°C for 4 hours. The paper points (n = 5 per measurement) were then dipped in different concentrations of NaOCl and photographed under standardized conditions in RAW format. The pictures were imported to image processing software and adjusted to the standardized background. The red, green, and blue levels of the paper points were assessed at a predefined area. Inverse regression was used to determine NaOCl concentration from red, green, and blue values, with both explanatory and outcome variables log-transformed to base 10. ResultsThe red value measurements were chosen for further analysis based on a comparison of the coefficient of determination (R2) and a residual analysis. The method was applied to concentrations of NaOCl between 0.0001% and 1% (R2 = 0.92). In this range, NaOCI concentrations could be assessed with an error not larger than 3-fold the determined concentration. ConclusionsThe present method proved to be robust to determine the order of magnitude of available chlorine that is present in a small volume. This should be useful for endodontic research.

Effect of sodium hypochlorite on Fasciola gigantica eggs and the intermediate host, Lymnaea natalensis: A scanning electron microscopy study

The liver fluke Fasciola is one of the commonest causative agents of liver disease in the world. Infection with this organism is of veterinary and medical importance, particularly in areas of high-density cattle and sheep production. Sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl) has been suggested for use in the control of Fasciola transmission. The current study was designed to evaluate the effect of NaOCl on the eggs and their intermediate hosts (Lymnaea natalensis snails) by scanning electron microscopy. Exposure of eggs to NaOCl had markedly deleterious effects on the whole body surface, from smooth to oedematous and disrupted, and on their integrity. These effects were concentration-dependent. Treatment of the intermediate host with various concentrations of NaOCl increased the mortality rate, and the effect was also dependent on concentration and length of exposure. Scanning electron microscopy of the snail foot region showed extensive alterations of the surface, with damage in some areas, after treatment with 10ppm NaOCl for 15min. Sodium hypochlorite may therefore be a useful control measure for eliminating both Fasciola eggs and the intermediate snail host.

Influence of temperature and concentration on the dynamic viscosity of sodium hypochlorite in comparison with 17% EDTA and 2% chlorhexidine gluconate: An in vitro study

Aims:The aim of this study was to assess the influence of temperature and concentration on the dynamic viscosity of sodium hypochlorite in comparison with 17% EDTA and 2% chlorhexidine gluconate.Settings and Design:In vitroMaterials and Methods:Dynamic viscosity measurements of sodium hypochlorite [NaOCl (5.25%, 2.6%, 1.25%)], EDTA (17%), and chlorhexidine gluconate [CHX, 2%] were measured using a rotational digital viscometer at room temperature (25°C). The influence of temperature (45°C, 60°C) and concentration (5.25%, 2.6%, and 1.25%) on the dynamic viscosity of NaOCl was also evaluated. The measurements were performed using a circulating water bath calibrated with a thermostat, and the dynamic viscosity measurements were noted in Centipoise (Cps).Statistical Analysis Used:The tests used for the statistical analysis were Kolmogorov-Smirnov and Shapiro Wilk tests, one-way ANOVA, and independent sample t-test.Results:Viscosity statistically increased with NaOCl concentration and decreased with increasing temperature. Amongst the tested NaOCl groups, 5.25% NaOCl at room temperature was significantly the most viscous (μ =1.5300 Cps) while 1.25% NaOCl at 60°C was significantly the least viscous (μ =1.1800 Cps).Conclusions:5.25% NaOCl and 17% EDTA are significantly viscous at room temperature. Elevating the temperature of 1.25% NaOCl to 60°C significantly reduces the viscosity of the NaOCl.

The evaluation of combined chemical and physical treatments on the reduction of resident microorganisms and Salmonella Typhimurium attached to chicken skin

This study was conducted to evaluate the efficacy of sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl, 0-200 mg/kg), thiamine dilauryl sulfate (TDS, 1,000 mg/kg), and ultrasound (37 kHz, 380 W) on reducing Salmonella Typhimurim, mesophilic aerobic bacteria (MAB), and coliforms on chicken skin. Chemical and physical treatments were applied for 5 min either singly or jointly, and Salmonella previously inoculated on chicken skin were quantitatively assessed using brilliant green agar, and the populations of MAB and coliforms in the native flora were enumerated using plate count agar and violet red bile agar, respectively. In the evaluation of bacterial attachment/detachment, chicken skin was quantitatively assessed for loosely, intermediately, and tightly attached bacteria. The treatment effects on bacteria detachment were also visualized using field emission scanning electron microscopy. In addition, color and textural properties of the skin after treatments were evaluated using a color difference meter and texture analyzer. Antimicrobial activity of NaOCl increased as the NaOCl concentration was increased, especially for loosely attached cells. The combination of 200 mg/kg NaOCl and ultrasound (NaOCl/ultrasound) significant reduced loosely, intermediately, and tightly attached bacteria populations by 0.75 to 0.47, 0.43 to 0.41, and 0.83 to 0.54 log cfu/g for MAB, coliforms, and Salmonella Typhimurium, respectively. However, the combination of NaOCl and TDS (NaOCl/TDS) did not sufficiently reduce those cells on chicken skins, except for loosely attached MAB and coliforms. The NaOCl/ultrasound combination produced a higher reduction in numbers of inoculated and native bacteria flora than any single application, with no negative effect on skin color or texture. Generally, the loosely attached bacteria were less resistant to the chemical and physical treatments than the intermediately and tightly attached bacteria in chicken skin, presumably due to their location in deeper skin layer and crevices. Further research is needed to investigate how the intermediately and tightly attached microorganisms can be effectively eliminated from chicken skin.

Antibacterial efficacy of endodontic irrigation solutions against Enterococcus faecalis

Methods Forty-one extracted single-rooted teeth were included in the present study. After content removal and autoclaving, they were divided into eight groups among which two were used as positive and negative controls. The remaining six groups were instrumented and irrigated with solutions containing 17% EDTA, sterile saline solution, and different concentrations of NaOCl. In addition, chlorhexidine 2% was also used in three groups. Microbiological evaluation was performed after 30 minutes, and 24 hours, respectively. E faecalis strain ATCC 29212 was used for culture tests. Statistical analysis was performed using non-parametric tests.

Influence of EDTA and dentine in tissue dissolution ability of sodium hypochlorite

This study verified whether ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) influences the pulp tissue dissolution capability of different concentrations of NaOCl, in the presence of dentine. NaOCl and EDTA solutions were simultaneously mixed in flasks either containing a dentine disc or those not containing a dentine disc. Previously weighed bovine pulp tissues were immersed in the solutions for 5, 15 and 30 min. The weight loss was measured. The dissolution tests were performed in triplicate. Univariate analysis of variance, along with further Tukey's honestly significant difference pairwise comparisons, was used to verify the effect of EDTA, different concentrations of NaOCl, dentine and time of incubation on the tissue dissolution. Higher concentrations of NaOCl increased the tissue dissolution. EDTA reduced the capacity of NaOCl to dissolve pulp tissue, even in presence of dentine. Dentine negatively affects the capacity of NaOCl to dissolve pulp tissue. In conclusion, the presence of EDTA and dentine negatively affects the tissue dissolution ability of NaOCl.

Concentration-dependent Effect of Sodium Hypochlorite on Stem Cells of Apical Papilla Survival and Differentiation

IntroductionIntracanal disinfection is a crucial step in regenerative endodontic procedures. Most published cases suggest the use of sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl) as the primary irrigant. However, the effect of clinically used concentrations of NaOCl on the survival and differentiation of stem cells is largely unknown. In this study, we tested the effect of various concentrations of NaOCl on the stem cells of the apical papilla (SCAPs) survival and dentin sialophosphoprotein (DSPP) expression. MethodsStandardized root canals were created in extracted human teeth and irrigated with NaOCl (0.5%, 1.5%, 3%, or 6%) followed by 17% EDTA or sterile saline. SCAPs in a hyaluronic acid–based scaffold were seeded into the canals and cultured for 7 days. Next, viable cells were quantified using a luminescence assay, and DSPP expression was evaluated using quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction. ResultsThere was a significant reduction in survival and DSPP expression in the group treated with 6% NaOCl compared with the untreated control group. Comparable survival was observed in the groups treated with the lower concentrations of NaOCl, but greater DSPP expression was observed in the 1.5% NaOCl group. In addition, 17% EDTA resulted in increased survival and DSPP expression partially reversing the deleterious effects of NaOCl. ConclusionsCollectively, the results suggest that dentin conditioning with high concentrations of NaOCl has a profound negative effect on the survival and differentiation of SCAPs. However, this effect can be prevented with the use of 1.5% NaOCl followed by 17% EDTA. The inclusion of this irrigation regimen might be beneficial in regenerative endodontic procedures.

Factors Affecting Seedling Emergence and Dry Matter Characteristics in Musa balbisiana Colla

The effects of storage duration (0, 2, 4, 6, 8, and 10 days), sterilization with sodium hypochlorite (0, 5, 10, 15, and 20%), and weaning media on seedling characteristics and dry matter content in Musa balbisiana seedlings were studied. The experiment was factorial in a completely randomized design with five replicates. The result indicates that increase in NaOCl concentration and number of days in storage significantly (P=0.5) increased the period of seedling emergence. Also, soaking in NaOCl for 20 min had significant effect on average seedling emergence at 15 and 20% concentrations, compared to 10 min soaking at the same concentrations. The combined effects of storage duration and sterilization resulted in a decrease in the duration of seedling emergence. Seeds previously sterilized with either water or NaOCl had no significant effect on seedling growth, leaf and corm dry weight, but affected almost all the dry matter traits. A mixture of poultry manure, top soil, and river sand as weaning media gave better seedling growth and increased dry matter characteristics. We conclude that M. balbisiana seeds require after-ripening treatment to enhance germination, sterilizing seeds with 5% NaOCl for 10 min and air-drying under ambient condition for 2–6 days were found most appropriate, and a mixture of poultry manure, top soil, and river sand is recommended as weaning medium for growth and dry matter composition in M. balbisiana seeds.

Gutta-percha points surface alterations after sodium hypochlorite disinfection

The gutta-percha should be disinfected before the shutter from being a vehicle for microorganisms to periapical tissues. Whereas cones may remain for longer than necessary for the disinfection immersed in disinfectant solutions, evaluated the effect of 1% and 2,5% NaOCl, on the surface morphology of gutta-percha as a function of immersion time. Analyzed by SEM (scanning electron microscope) the surface morphology of 110 gutta-percha main divided into three groups: G1 (control): no disinfection, disinfection in 1% NaOCl for 20 min, 2,5% NaOCl for 10 min; G2 disinfection in 1% NaOCl for 30 min, 6h,12h and 24 h; G3 disinfection in 2,5%NaOCl for 30 min, 6h,12h and 24h. The images were obtained by SEM, the apex of the cones were photographed at 500x and 5000x increased and qualitatively analyzed for the presence of surface changes. The results showed a gradual change in surface morphology of the growing cones with increasing concentration of NaOCl and immersion time. The controls group (G1) showed minimal change in surface cones. It is conclude that by increasing the concentration of NaOCl solution and immersion time of gutta-percha increasing changes occur on the outer surface of the cone.Keywords: Disinfection, Endodontics, Gutta-percha, Sodium hypochlorite

Synergistic effects of elevated carbon dioxide and sodium hypochlorite on survival and impairment of three phytoplankton species

Sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl) is widely used to disinfect seawater in power plant cooling systems in order to reduce biofouling, and in ballast water treatment systems to prevent transport of exotic marine species. While the toxicity of NaOCl is expected to increase by ongoing ocean acidification, and many experimental studies have shown how algal calcification, photosynthesis and growth respond to ocean acidification, no studies have investigated the relationship between NaOCl toxicity and increased . Therefore, we investigated whether the impacts of NaOCl on survival, chlorophyll a (Chl-a), and effective quantum yield in three marine phytoplankton belonging to different taxonomic classes are increased under high levels. Our results show that all biological parameters of the three species decreased under increasing NaOCl concentration, but increasing concentration alone (from 450 to 715 ) had no effect on any of these parameters in the organisms. However, due to the synergistic effects between NaOCl and , the survival and Chl-a content in two of the species, Thalassiosira eccentrica and Heterosigma akashiwo, were significantly reduced under high when NaOCl was also elevated. The results show that combined exposure to high and NaOCl results in increasing toxicity of NaOCl in some marine phytoplankton. Consequently, greater caution with use of NaOCl will be required, as its use is widespread in coastal waters.

Sporicidal efficacy of pH-adjusted bleach for control of bioburden on production facility surfaces

pH-adjusted bleach was one of the agents used to disinfect contaminated public buildings in the USA following the 2001 bioterrorist attack with Bacillus anthracis spores. A USEPA fact sheet describes the preparation of pH-adjusted bleach by combining diluted sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl) with a controlled amount of 5% acetic acid. This paper reports a modification of this procedure to qualify the use of pH-adjusted bleach for routine disinfection of cleanroom surfaces in pharmaceutical manufacturing facilities whenever a short contact time is desirable or there is a need for enhanced germicidal or sporicidal activity. Adjustment of pH was obtained reproducibly with either acetic acid or HCl, confirming the feasibility of developing standard procedures for the controlled addition of acid to diluted NaOCl solutions without compromising operator safety and convenience. Efficacy testing using spores from an in-house isolate of Bacillus pumilus confirmed that NaOCl solutions in the pH 5-8 range have much greater sporicidal activity on surfaces than do unadjusted alkaline solutions (pH>11). With a contact time of 0.5min, the log10 reduction in spore viable counts was >5.4 for the five representative surfaces tested relative to untreated controls. Solutions of pH-adjusted NaOCl are known to be less stable than unadjusted alkaline solutions. Stability studies were performed by monitoring sporicidal efficacy, level of free available chlorine (FAC), and pH. Testing included several NaOCl concentrations and adjustment to different starting pHs. The efficacy of pH-adjusted solutions persisted in open containers for at least 12h even though some FAC degradation occurred. In addition, solutions of 0.29 or 0.50% NaOCl stored at room temperature protected from light retained efficacy for at least 4weeks, indicating that short-term storage of solutions is possible following pH adjustment. The inorganic chemical degradation of pH-adjusted NaOCl solutions generates chlorate ion, an undesirable by-product. A comparison of chemical stability for 0.12, 0.25, and 0.50% NaOCl solutions adjusted to different initial pHs indicated that the least chlorate formation occurred with 0.12% NaOCl.

Can the sodium hypochlorite tissue dissolution ability during endodontic treatment really be trusted? An in vitro and ex vivo study

Data were analyzed by means of the analysis of variance with Tukey test (P < 0.05). Dissolution time was analyzed by immersing bovine pulp tissue in different volumes of 2.5% and 5.25% NaOCl solution. Results: No significant difference was found between the NaOCl concentrations in the histological investigation. No substance was able to completely clean the isthmuses. Moreover, a higher dissolution rate for the bovine pulp tissue was found in NaOCl with a concentration of 5.25%, in addition to a shorter dissolution time for larger volumes. Conclusion: The NaOCl is effective for tissue dissolution when in direct contact, however, NaOCl solution, even in high concentrations, was not competent to dissolve remnants of pulp tissue in root isthmuses during endodontic treatment.

Dentin Inhibits the Antibacterial Effect of New and Conventional Endodontic Irrigants

IntroductionThis in vitro study aimed to compare the antibacterial effect of a new irrigant, QMiX, with that of conventional irrigation solutions in the presence or absence of dentin powder. MethodsDentin powder was prepared from bovine incisors and sterilized. The following irrigants were tested against Enterococcus faecalis (ATCC 29212): 6% sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl), 1% NaOCl, QMiX, 2% chlorhexidine gluconate (CHX), and 17% EDTA. Sterilized saline solution was used as negative control. Survival of bacteria exposed to the irrigants in the presence or absence of dentin was monitored under planktonic conditions. Colony-forming units were counted, and log-transformed numbers were analyzed by using Kruskal-Wallis and Mann-Whitney tests. P values less than .05 were considered significant. ResultsIn the absence of dentin, after 10 seconds of contact with the bacterial suspension, 6% NaOCl showed the lowest bacterial count; the difference to the negative control was significant. After 30 seconds, 6% NaOCl displayed 0 colony-forming units per milliliter, whereas 1% NaOCl and QMiX showed reduced number of colonies in comparison with the negative control. After 1 minute, both concentrations of NaOCl presented no bacterial growth and QMiX reduced the number of colonies, but EDTA and CHX had bacterial counts similar to the negative control. Dentin had a significant inhibitory effect on 6% NaOCl (10 seconds), 1% NaOCl (10 seconds and 1 minute), and QMiX (10 seconds and 1 minute). After 6 hours, both concentrations of NaOCl, QMiX, and CHX killed all bacteria, regardless of the presence of dentin. ConclusionsSix percent NaOCl was the most effective irrigant against E. faecalis. Saline and EDTA had no measurable antibacterial effect. Dentin delayed the antibacterial activity of NaOCl and QMiX but did not completely prevent their action.

Chemical foam cleaning as an alternative for flux recovery in dynamic filtration processes

In this study, the suitability of a new foam cleaning method for dynamic filtration modules was investigated. Foam was produced from a commercially available cleaning agent in a foaming device constructed in house. First, characterization experiments proved the ability to produce foams of a defined quality and stability. In subsequent lab-scale cleaning experiments, the optimal cleaning parameters such as pH, incubation time, temperature and NaOCl concentration were evaluated with image analyses of filter samples. Based on these results the best composition of the cleaning foam was chosen.Foam from 5000ppm NaOCl liquid solution (or ∼270mg NaOCl/L foam volume) was successfully applied to clean a flat-sheet mesh-filter module established in a pilot plant. It was shown that even after consecutive application the initial filtration performance could be recovered after chemical foam cleaning. No difference in cleaning efficiency was observed compared to a reference method using a liquid cleaning agent.The newly developed foam cleaning method shows high potential for dynamic filtration processes, particularly in the large scale where CIP cleanings with liquid cleaner cannot be performed due to the large pore size of the filter.

Occurrence of Household Mold and Efficacy of Sodium Hypochlorite Disinfectant

The occurrence and distribution of mold on household surfaces and the efficacy of bleach-based (sodium hypochlorite, NaOCl) disinfectants on mold viability and allergenicity was documented. Household microenvironments prone to increased moisture were specifically targeted. Using the sticky tape method, 1330 samples were collected from non-porous indoor surfaces of 160 homes across the United States, and analyzed for mold. Homes were randomly selected and recruited via phone interviews. Culture and immunoassays were used to measure the viability and reduction of allergenic properties of Aspergillus fumigatus following 2.4% NaOCl treatment. All homes and 72.9% of surfaces tested positive for mold. Windowsills were the most frequently contaminated site (87.5%) and Cladosporium the most commonly identified mold (31.0%). Five-minute exposures to 2.4% NaOCl resulted in a >3 to >6-log10 reduction of culturable mold counts in controlled laboratory studies. Organisms were nonculturable after 5- and 10-min contact times on non-porous and porous ceramic carriers, respectively, and A. fumigatus spore-eluted allergen levels were reduced by an average 95.8% in 30 sec, as indicated by immunoassay. All homes are contaminated with some level of mold, and regrowth is likely in moisture-prone microenvironments. The use of low concentrations (2.4%) of NaOCl for the reduction of culturable indoor mold and related allergens is effective and recommended.

The Effect of Sodium Hypochlorite Solutions on the Viability and In Vitro Regeneration Capacity of the Tissue

Although there are many chemicals used for sterilization purposes such as ethanol, hydrogen peroxide, bromine water, mercuric chloride, silver nitrate and antibiotics, sodium hypochlorite solutions have been most widely used. Since NaOCl has a strong oxidizing property which makes it highly reactive with amino acids, nucleic acids, amines, and amides, it is highly effective against all kinds of bacteria, fungi, and viruses. The general reaction between amino acids and NaOCl produces the respective aldehyde, NH4Cl and CO2. Thus, during the sterilization process, direct contact of the tissue with NaOCl depending on it’s concentration, application period and temperature may have a hazardous effect on the health of the tissue. In plant tissue culture studies, high-frequency shoot regeneration which is highly affected by tissue health, is a prerequisite for an efficient gene transformation system and a clonal propagation of plants. The most important treatment prior to culture initiation is the sterilization of the tissue. In plant tissue culture, elimination of microorganisms from the tissue has great importance. From one hand, sterilization process aims to eliminate all microorganisms that can easily grow on the tissue; on the other hand, it should guarantee the tissue’s viability and regeneration capacity. This review has focused on the effects of concentration, application period and temperature of NaOCl using for eliminating microorganisms on the viability and in vitro regeneration capacity of the tissue.

Comparative studies on TiO2/ZnO photocatalyzed degradation of 4-chlorocatechol and bleach mill effluents

The study presents a comparative account on TiO2 and ZnO facilitated photocatalytic degradation of 4-chlorocatechol (4-CC) typically found in bleach mill effluents (BME). The effect of major process parameters such as catalyst dose, pH, oxidant concentration, and source of light (UV/solar) on degradation efficiency has been investigated. The degradation efficiency of 4-CC was assessed in terms of absorbance as a function of irradiation time. Of the two catalysts screened, ZnO has been observed to be a better catalyst over TiO2. The maximum degradation of 99.2 and 91.6% was obtained with 1.5 g/L ZnO, at pH 8, after 2 h irradiation and with 2.5 g/L TiO2, at free pH (6.5), 0.04M NaOCl concentration after 6 h irradiation, respectively. Further, the kinetics of degradation process was found to follow pseudo-first-order reaction. The photocatalytic process was applied to treat actual BME and degradation of effluent, observed in terms of chemical oxygen demand reduction, was 36.5 and 39% with UV/TiO2/NaOCl and UV/ZnO systems, respectively. A 10-fold dilution of effluent was, however, needed to make the effluent amenable to photocatalytic treatment. Degradation efficiency at optimized conditions under solar mode was almost the same as under UV irradiation, thus demonstrating the commercial viability of the process.

Endodontic ‘solutions’ part 2: an audit comparing current practice in belfast with uk and republic of ireland dental schools

Endodontic lubricants, irrigating solutions and medicaments help reduce the microbial load within root canals. Primary and secondary cases involve different microbes. Each'solution'or combinations thereof could play a significant role but no detailed guidelines exist on their use. An audit was undertaken to compare current practice in Belfast Dental School to the others across the UK and Republic of Ireland (ROI). This audit highlighted three main differences between Belfast and other dental schools. Many other institutions utilized other irrigants besides sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl), different intracanal medicaments, including calcium hydroxide, and higher concentrations of NaOCl. Having gathered this information, we ask, 'Is there sufficient evidence to change the endodontic regime currently used at Belfast Dental School?'. Using the findings from the literature review (Part 1), we introduce new evidence-based protocols for primary and secondary cases for use in Belfast Dental School. In the absence of detailed clinical guidelines on the use of endodontic lubricants, irrigants and medicaments in primary and secondary cases, it is important to be aware of current practice in UK and ROI dental schools where dentists and specialists are trained.