Nanofluid Flow Research Articles

Computational Study and Application of the Hamilton and Crosser Model for Ternary Hybrid Nanofluid Flow Past a Riga Wedge with Heterogeneous Catalytic Reaction

The research of heat and mass transfer enhancement is influenced by several physical effects such as thermal conductivity, heterogeneous catalytic reaction, heat source/sink, thermal radiation and suction/injection, and is a significant area of study, particularly in the field of applied materials science, nanotechnology and mechanical engineering. The main objective of this research is to analyze and explore the heat and mass transfer of a novel ternary hybrid nanofluids binary nanofluid flow while considering the influences of the control parameters mentioned earlier. The model is developed for Hamilton and Crosser to analyze the radiation mechanism in a fluid system subjected to a Riga wedge. Due to the upgraded thermal transportation, the novel ternary hybrid nanofluids (THNs) show great potential in addressing these difficulties because of their significant properties, which include enhanced thermal conductivity, convective thermal transport and the ability to improve autocatalysis reactions. The governing model equations and boundary conditions are nondimensionalized by introducing suitable similarity transformations. Thereafter, the computational Chebyshev collocation spectral technique implemented in the MATHEMATICA 11.3 environment is used to calculate the numerical solution. The THNs demonstrate an efficiency rate of about 2.79%, with a minimum efficiency rate of 3.27%. It has been revealed that heat generation and solar radiation parameters are significant physical features for enhancing heat transfer processes.

Thermally radiative flow of MHD Powell-Eyring nanofluid over an exponential stretching sheet with swimming microorganisms and viscous dissipation: A numerical computation

This work deals with the study of mass and heat transmission in nanofluid flow in the Powell-Eyring model over a sheet that is exponentially stretched with motile microorganisms. Additionally, viscous dissipation and radiation sources are considered. The governing flow expressions are remodeled into nonlinear ordinary differential equations by implementing the appropriate transformations. The remodeled equations are numerically computed by using the bvp4c technique via MATLAB. The various flow parameters are used to investigate and explain in depth the nanofluid velocity, thermal, nanoparticle volume fraction, and motile microbe density profiles. It is noted that the nanofluid velocity decreases with enlarging the values of the magnetic field parameter. The fluid thermal profile develops for greater quantities of radiation thermophoresis and Brownian motion parameters. The nanoparticle concentration decays when the Prandtl number and Lewis number are increased. The motile microbe density profiles suppress when heightening the values of the Peclet number, bioconvection Lewis number, and bioconvection parameter. The magnetic field parameter leads to a decrease in local skin friction, heat, and mass transfer rates.

Magnetohydrodynamics Stagnation Point Flow of Hybrid Nanofluids with Distinct Base Fluid over an Exponentially Extending Cylinder: A Numerical Comparative Analysis

Magnetohydrodynamics Stagnation Point Flow of Hybrid Nanofluids with Distinct Base Fluid over an Exponentially Extending Cylinder: A Numerical Comparative Analysis

Development of ternary hybrid nanofluid for a viscous Casson fluid flow through an inclined micro-porous channel with Rosseland nonlinear thermal radiation

ABSTRACT The current problem is concerned with the investigation of Casson ternary hybrid nanofluid flow through microchannel. Nanofluids containing three distinct kinds of nanoparticles have a lot of industrial and engineering applications as a result of their amazing thermal properties. The nanoparticles (alumina A l 2 O 3 , titanium oxide Ti O 2 , and copper oxide CuO ) are immersed in base fluid (ethylene glycol C 2 H 6 O 2 ) resulting in ternary hybrid nanofluid ( A l 2 O 3 + Ti O 2 + CuO / C 2 H 6 O 2 ). For the problem under consideration, the momentum distribution, temperature distribution, entropy generation, and Bejan number have been examined. With the aid of tables and graphs, comparisons of ternary hybrid, binary hybrid, and mono nanofluids have also been investigated. With nondimensional variables, the governing equations are transformed into a dimensionless form and solved using the Chebyshev Collocation Method (CCM). Analysis shows that the increment in Reynolds number, Brinkmann number, and exponential heat source parameter results in an enhancement in the dimensionless temperature and the variational improvement of the thermal radiation parameter reduces the thermal distribution. Hence, the findings show that ternary hybrid nanofluids perform better in terms of thermal conductivity performance than either binary hybrid or mono nanofluids.

A numerical study on the radiative heat transfer aspects of hybrid nanofluid flow past a deformable rotating cone

A numerical study on the radiative heat transfer aspects of hybrid nanofluid flow past a deformable rotating cone

Linear stability analysis of micropolar nanofluid flow across the accelerated surface with inclined magnetic field

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to study the two-dimensional micropolar fluid flow with conjugate heat transfer and mass transpiration. The considered nanofluid has graphene nanoparticles.Design/methodology/approachGoverning nonlinear partial differential equations are converted to nonlinear ordinary differential equations by similarity transformation. Then, to analyze the flow, the authors derive the dual solutions to the flow problem. Biot number and radiation effect are included in the energy equation. The momentum equation was solved by using boundary conditions, and the temperature equation solved by using hypergeometric series solutions. Nusselt numbers and skin friction coefficients are calculated as functions of the Reynolds number. Further, the problem is governed by other parameters, namely, the magnetic parameter, radiation parameter, Prandtl number and mass transpiration. Graphene nanofluids have shown promising thermal conductivity enhancements due to the high thermal conductivity of graphene and have a wide range of applications affecting the thermal boundary layer and serve as coolants and thermal management systems in electronics or as heat transfer fluids in various industrial processes.FindingsResults show that increasing the magnetic field decreases the momentum and increases thermal radiation. The heat source/sink parameter increases the thermal boundary layer. Increasing the volume fraction decreases the velocity profile and increases the temperature. Increasing the Eringen parameter increases the momentum of the fluid flow. Applications are found in the extrusion of polymer sheets, films and sheets, the manufacturing of plastic wires, the fabrication of fibers and the growth of crystals, among others. Heat sources/sinks are commonly used in electronic devices to transfer the heat generated by high-power semiconductor devices such as power transistors and optoelectronics such as lasers and light-emitting diodes to a fluid medium, thermal radiation on the fluid flow used in spectroscopy to study the properties of materials and also used in thermal imaging to capture and display the infrared radiation emitted by objects.Originality/valueMicropolar fluid flow across stretching/shrinking surfaces is examined. Biot number and radiation effects are included in the energy equation. An increase in the volume fraction decreases the momentum boundary layer thickness. Nusselt numbers and skin friction coefficients are presented versus Reynolds numbers. A dual solution is obtained for a shrinking surface.

Axisymmetric stagnation-point flow of a fractional Oldroyd-B hybrid nanofluid over a vertical cylinder by improved Buongiorno's model

This paper investigated the unsteady axisymmetric stagnation-point flow, heat and mass transfer of Oldroyd-B hybrid nanofluid over a vertical cylinder by using Caputo time fractional derivatives for the first time, with the consideration of second-order velocity slip conditions. Improved Buongiorno's model was adopted to build the governing equations and finite difference combined with L1-algorithm was employed to solve the numerical solutions. Effects of key physical parameters on velocity, heat and mass transfer were presented graphically and discussed in detail. Outcomes show that the fractional derivatives are capable to describe the memory effect and thermoelasticity of viscoelastic nanofluids. Both Brownian motion and thermophoresis, especially Brownian motion, improve the heat transfer on the cylinder wall. In addition, the sensitivity of average Nusselt (or Sherwood) number to velocity fractional derivates α and β rises with increasing α and β, while the sensitivity to temperature fractional derivate γ declines with increasing γ. When γ increases from 0.2 to 0.3, the relative growth rate of average Nusselt number is about 9.26 %. This study provides a reference for exploring the stationary-point flow of fractional order nanofluids on vertical cylinders.

Numerical study of aphron drilling crosser fluids coating layer incorporated blood with zinc oxide (ZnO) nanoparticles injected in esophagus

AbstractThis study aims to explore a novel cross model for peristaltic flow, which has not been previously addressed. The focus is on investigating the peristaltic flow of an incompressible nanofluid within a vertically uniform channel. The current model has application in drug delivery, biomedical engineering, lab on chip etc. Utilizing peristaltic flow for drug delivery systems in symmetric channels offers precise control over fluid motion, non‐Newtonian fluids, such as polymer solutions used in drug formulations, exhibit complex flow behavior that can be manipulated through peristaltic pumping mechanisms. This application has the potential to revolutionize targeted drug delivery, enhancing therapeutic efficacy and minimizing side effects. Studying peristaltic flow in symmetric channels for non‐Newtonian fluids offers interdisciplinary insights and innovative applications. Understanding fluid rheology, channel geometry, and peristaltic pumping can lead to novel strategies for fluid control, with implications for healthcare, biotechnology, and materials science advancements. To simplify the complex system of nonlinear partial differential equations governing the flow, we consider long wavelengths and low Reynolds numbers. Subsequently, we employ Shooting methods to solve this system of equations, providing a comprehensive evaluation of the numerical results for key parameters such as velocity, temperature, concentration, and pressure gradient. The findings are presented through graphical representations of significant flow parameters.

Transient flow and heat transfer characteristics of single-phase nanofluid past a stretching sheet under the influence of thermal radiation and heat source

This work aims to investigate the unsteady hydromagnetic free convective flow of a viscous, electrically incompressible fluid influenced by an inclined magnetic field, radiation, and heat source. Specifically, it explores the behavior of water-based nanofluids under these conditions. The Newton-Raphson shooting technique combines the 4th-order Runge-Kutta approach to obtain dimensionless and accurate solutions to the governing equations. The study assesses flow characteristics and heat transfer properties over various parameter values. The outcomes are visualized through graphical representations of velocity, temperature, skin friction coefficient, and the local Nusselt number. The present study examines the impact of copper (Cu), silver (Ag), alumina (Al2O3), and titanium dioxide (TiO2) nanoparticles in water as the base fluid on the percentage increase in skin friction and Nusselt number under various physical conditions. Suction increases skin friction by 10–15 % and the Nusselt number by a similar margin, whereas injection can reduce these metrics. Radiation enhances heat transfer, resulting in a 5–10 % increase in skin friction and a 10–15 % rise in the Nusselt number, with nanoparticles like Ag showing the most substantial effects due to their superior thermal properties.

Transpiration-induced convective heat transfer in ternary hybrid nanofluid flow due to dual stretching on wedge: Reverse flow analysis

Boundary layer separation is a common challenge in fluid dynamics, where flow separates from a surface due to adverse pressure gradients. Transpiration, the injection or suction of fluid through a surface, is a technique used to mitigate this issue. This study investigates transpiration’s effects on boundary layer separation over a stretching wedge conveying ternary hybrid nanoparticles, which is crucial for optimizing various engineering systems. The study establishes a mathematical model incorporating transpiration, dual stretching, viscous dissipation, and nanoparticle volume fractions. The model is reduced to ordinary differential equations using similarity transformations and then solved numerically with MATLAB’s bvp4c package. Here, the convective heat transfer increases with suction and decreases with blowing due to changes in boundary layer thickness. This insight provides valuable information for engineers seeking to control temperature gradients in their systems. Moreover, the study highlights transpiration’s efficacy in mitigating boundary layer separation induced by adverse pressure gradients. Furthermore, flow enhancement with blowing depends on specific conditions, such as the value of the blowing parameter, highlighting its nuanced influence.

Implicit finite difference simulations for unsteady oscillating flow of Walters-B nanofluid with microbes using the Cattaneo–Christov model

The thermal importance of nanoparticles in different fields of engineering is still a developing issue that necessitates additional focused consideration. The suspension of non-Newtonian fluids with nonmaterials has various applications in areas such as enhanced thermal systems, energy processes, aerospace engineering, and chemical industries. Following such motivations, this work aims to analyze the heat and mass transfer flow of Walters-B nanofluid in the presence of microorganisms. The fluid motion is presumed to be nonsteady over a surface that undergoes periodic acceleration. The motivations for studying nanofluid’s oscillating flow are its use in effective mixing processes, combustion stability, and process efficiency. The text provides a detailed explanation of the saturation of porous media. A modified theory for heat and mass fluxes, known as the Cattaneo–Christov approach, suggests an extension in heat equations. Moreover, it supports the interaction of radiation phenomena for enhancing heat transfer. It is noteworthy that the entire problem is represented using extremely nonlinear partial differential equations (PDEs). The CFD study utilizing the renowned implicit finite difference method (FDM) has been effectively employed to propose a numerical solution for the problem. The numerical results are deemed valid and confirmed within certain limiting cases, based on the available data. The evaluation of velocity, skin friction coefficient, Nusselt number, and Sherwood number as a function of time has been demonstrated for various parameters. It is asserted that the wall shear force exhibited an oscillating pattern with a greater magnitude as a result of the viscoelastic parameter. The Nusselt number and Sherwood number exhibit slight acceleration as a result of changes in the Prandtl number and Schmidt number, respectively. The proposed model is specifically designed for use in heat exchangers, vibrational systems, compact designs, and vibration control.

Analysis of Darcy–Forchheimer flow of magnetized hybrid nanofluid (MoS 2+ZnO/E) with non-linear heat source and quartic autocatalytic chemical reaction

In this article, an effort is made to analyze the 3 − D flow of hybrid nanofluid over a rotating stretching sheet. The hybrid nanofluid contains engine oil as a base fluid amalgamated with nano-particles Mo S 2 and ZnO . The flow is assumed to pass through a Darcy–Forchheimer medium subjected to the influence of an inclined magnetic field. In addition, heat radiation, Joule heating, viscous dissipation, nonlinear heat source, and quartic autocatalytic chemical reaction are applied to discourse heat and mass transfer features. The PDEs representing the physical problem are converted to ODEs with the introduction of similarity transformations. The solution of the problem is determined numerically by using MATLAB built-in bvp4c method. The proposed mathematical model’s validation is ascertained by comparing it with an earlier study in limiting case. In this regard, an excellent consensus is accomplished. The current investigation reveals that the flow along axial direction gets retarded by enhancing the values of rotational parameter, inertial parameter, and magnetic parameter, whereas the flow along radial direction gets accelerated. The increasing value of angle of inclination admirably resists the motion of nanofluid and hybrid nanofluid. The concentration profile gets decreased under the increasing influence of inclination angle and Schmidt number while it enhances for homogeneous reaction parameter. The enhancing values of rotational parameter, solid volume fraction and temperature, and exponential dependent heat generation parameters enhance the value of Nusselt number.

Thermal performance of MHD quadratic convection of nano fluid flow in a square cavity filled with a porous medium with radiation and heat generation effects

The dynamics of enclosure flows are crucial for temperature management in fuel cell systems. Effective temperature control is essential for maintaining optimal operating conditions, thereby enhancing the efficiency and longevity of fuel cells. By refining coolant flow pathways, simulations play a pivotal role in efficiently dissipating the heat generated during electricity production. This study aims to explore the numerical simulation of buoyancy-driven magnetized nanofluid flows within a square enclosure saturated with a porous medium. The goal is to understand how various factors, such as magnetic fields, nanoparticle suspension, thermal radiation, porosity, and internal heat generation/absorption, collectively impact fluid dynamics and thermal distribution. The study employs the finite difference-based Marker-and-Cell (MAC) method, validated against previous studies, to accurately simulate buoyancy-driven flow phenomena. The transverse uniform magnetic field, Nield conditions, and heat generation are considered, with the nanofluid characterized by Buongiorno’s model. The MAC solver is used to solve the dimensionless conservative equations of thermal transport, mass, and momentum transport, ensuring appropriate wall conditions. The impact of magnetic number (0 ≤ Ha ≤ 30), heat generation (−2 ≤ Q ≤ 2), Darcy parameter (10−4 ≤Da ≤10−1), Rayleigh number (104 ≤Ra ≤ 106), Thermal radiation (0 ≤ Rd ≤ 7) and Non-linear temperature parameter (0 ≤λ ≤3) on the fluid flow and thermal transport have been examined. The study comprehensively analyses the interplay of the magnetic field, nanoparticle suspension, thermal radiation, porosity parameter, and internal heat generation/absorption. It concludes that these factors significantly influence fluid dynamics and thermal distribution within the enclosure, providing valuable insights for optimizing temperature management in fuel cell systems.

Thermal analysis of non-Newtonian ferro nanofluid flow due to stretching surface under buoyancy effects through numerical computation

The extent of buoyancy forces on Tangent Hyperbolic nanofluid flow over a vertically held stretchable plate in the presence of a magnetic field is mathematically modeled in this work. The governing partial differential equations that model the present problem are modified into a system of ordinary differential equations by practicing a set of suitable similarity conversions. This conversion method helps to solve this complex problem through a numerical technique. The outcomes of available research are compared with the existing literature and a reasonable accord is set. Detailed analysis on assisting and opposing flow problems is considered with graphical illustrations of multiple flow parameters. In both cases of assisting and opposing flow problems, a declining impact of buoyancy forces is observed on skin friction owing to temperature deviation. Moreover, higher convection is observed for assisting flow problems as compared to opposing flow under buoyancy impacts. It is further noticed that upon increasing the relaxation time of the fluid, the fluid flow is decelerated and the less cooling effect is generated in this case.

Effective thermal properties under the influence of various shapes of the nanoparticles on the flow of ternary hybrid nanofluid over an infinite vertical plate

Effective thermal properties under the influence of various shapes of the nanoparticles on the flow of ternary hybrid nanofluid over an infinite vertical plate

Bio-Convective Flow of Micropolar Nanofluids over an Inclined Permeable Stretching Surface with Radiative Activation Energy

The focal concern of this study is to examine the behaviour of bio-convective flow featuring micropolar nanofluids over an inclined permeable stretching surface while considering the influence of radiative activation energy. This investigation addresses the complex interplay of factors such as biological activity, convective heat and mass transfer, unique attributes of micropolar fluids, the dynamics of nanofluids, and radiative effects. This analysis employed Buongiorno’s model, considering thermal radiation and activation energy on the bioconvective flow of micropolar nanofluids over an inclined stretching surface. Some suitable similarity variables were used to obtain a set of non-linear differential equations from the initial partial differential equations which were then solved numerically using the Runge-Kutta Fehberg method along with shooting technique. The effects of some physical parameters were examined on the velocity, temperature, concentration, and microorganism density profiles of the flow. The result revealed that each increase in the heat source/sink, thermal radiation, thermophoresis, and Brownian motion lead to a corresponding increase in the thermal boundary layer; activation energy increased the concentration while Peclet number and bioconvective Lewis number declined the microorganism density profile. Insights gleaned from this study can find applications in biomedical fields. Understanding the behavior of bio-convective nanofluids has implications for controlled heat transfer in medical applications like hyperthermia treatments or targeted drug delivery, thereby impacting patient care.

Modeling of EMHD ternary hybrid Williamson nanofluid flow over a stretching sheet with temperature jump and magnetic induction

This study explores the heat transfer and fluid flow characteristics of an incompressible Williamson ternary hybrid nanofluid (WTHNF) over an unsteady stretching surface, influenced by external electric and magnetic fields, thermal radiation, and a porous boundary. The WTHNF consists of ZrO2, MoS2, and GO nanoparticles suspended in water. By applying suitable transformations, the fundamental equations are simplified and solved numerically using the Explicit Runge Kutta Method (ERKM). The research investigates how various physical parameters, such as electric and magnetic field strengths, thermal radiation, porous plate permeability, velocity slip, and temperature jump, impact the velocity, temperature, skin friction coefficient, and local Nusselt number. The findings offer valuable insights into the interactions between WTHNF and external factors, which can inform the design and optimization of advanced heat transfer and fluid flow systems in engineering. Additionally, this study demonstrates the potential of WTHNF to enhance heat transfer rates, making it a promising candidate for cooling systems, heat exchangers, and energy storage devices. The research contributes to developing more efficient and sustainable technologies in aerospace, biomedical engineering, and renewable energy. Moreover, the results provide a foundation for future research on the behavior of complex fluids under various external influences. This could lead to the creation of more advanced fluid flow systems, improving efficiency and performance across numerous applications.

Insight into the thermal transport by considering the modified Buongiorno model during the silicon oil-based hybrid nanofluid flow: probed by artificial intelligence

This work aims to analyze the impacts of the magnetic field, activation of energy, thermal radiation, thermophoresis, and Brownian effects on the hybrid nanofluid (HNF) (Ag++silicon oil) flow past a porous spinning disk. The pressure loss due to porosity is constituted by the Darcy–Forchheimer relation. The modified Buongiorno model is considered for simulating the flow field into a mathematical form. The modeled problem is further simplified with the new group of dimensionless variables and further transformed into a first-order system of equations. The reduced system is further analyzed with the Levenberg–Marquardt algorithm using a trained artificial neural network (ANN) with a tolerance, step size of 0.001, and 1,000 epochs. The state variables under the impacts of the pertinent parameters are assessed with graphs and tables. It has been observed that when the magnetic parameter increases, the velocity gradient of mono and hybrid nanofluids (NFs) decreases. As the input of the Darcy–Forchheimer parameter increases, the velocity profiles decrease. The result shows that as the thermophoresis parameter increases, temperature and concentration increase as well. When the activation energy parameter increases, the concentration profile becomes higher. For a deep insight into the analysis of the problem, a statistical approach for data fitting in the form of regression lines and error histograms for NF and HNF is presented. The regression lines show that 100% of the data is used in curve fitting, while the error histograms depict the minimal zero error −7.1e6 for the increasing values of Nt. Furthermore, the mean square error and performance validation for each varying parameter are presented. For validation, the present results are compared with the available literature in the form of a table, where the current results show great agreement with the existing one.

Investigation of thermal radiation and joule heating effects on variable viscosity Casson nanofluid flow over a stretching sheet in Darcy–Forchheimer porous medium

Nanofluids possess unique thermal and rheological properties that offer significant advantages in enhancing heat transfer efficiency in various applications, such as heat exchangers, cooling systems, and microdevices. In this study, we investigate the combined effects of thermal radiation, Joule heating, variable viscosity, and a two-phase model on the flow behavior and heat transfer characteristics of a magnetohydrodynamic Casson nanofluid flowing over a stretching sheet in Darcy-Forchheimer porous media. The governing partial differential equations are converted into a system of first-order ordinary differential equations numerically solved using the bvp5c package in MATLAB. Consequently, the result indicates that the velocity profile increases with thermal radiation, variable viscosity, and viscous dissipation, decreasing with the magnetic field, permeability index, and Forchheimer coefficient. Also, the temperature profile shows an increase with the permeability index, viscous dissipation, and thermal radiation, but a decrease with the Forchheimer Coefficient, variable viscosity, and magnetic field. Additionally, the concentration profile exhibits an increase with the Forchheimer coefficient and permeability index, and variable viscosity while it decreases with viscous dissipation, magnetic field, and thermal radiation. Analyzing the skin friction coefficient reveals an increase with magnetic field and thermal radiation and a decrease with permeability index and Forchheimer coefficient as well as variable viscosity. Moreover, the local heat transfer rate demonstrates an increase with the variable viscosity, and magnetic field as well as the Forchheimer coefficient and permeability index. At the same time, it decreases with the viscous dissipation. Furthermore, the local mass transfer rate displays an increase with the magnetic field and thermal radiation and viscous dissipation, while it decreases with the variable viscosity as well as permeability index, viscous dissipation, and Forchheimer coefficient. Finally, the current findings are compared with that of the existing literature and a sound agreement was established.

Significance of variable thermal conductivity and suction/injection in unsteady MHD mixed convection flow of Casson Williamson nanofluid through heat and mass transport with gyrotactic microorganisms

AbstractThe present paper explores a two‐dimensional mixed bio‐convective unsteady viscous hydro‐magnetic Casson Williamson nanofluid flow model with heat and mass transport incorporating motile microorganisms towards a stretchy spinning disc. The flow concept is accomplished by rotating a stretched disc with a time‐varying angular velocity. By applying a magnetic field normal to the axial direction, a magnetic interaction is taken into consideration. The Casson Williamson nanofluid contains nanosized particles suspended with swimming motile microorganisms and the rotation of the disc is exhibited by buoyancy forces, thermophoresis, suction/injection, zero mass flux conditions, variable thermal conductivity, Joule heating and so forth. The obtained flow narrating differential equations of the model are transformed into ordinary differential system. This is accomplished by simulating boundary value problems using the shooting technique using the ‘ND‐Solve’ approach included in the Mathematica software (Mathematica 12). The implications of the engaged parameters such as Williamson fluid parameter, Casson fluid (CF) parameter, thermophoresis parameter, Brownian motion parameter and so forth, on both axial and radial velocities, temperature, concentration of nanoparticles and microorganisms are explained by means of graphical and tabular constructions. This paper's validity has been confirmed and its findings align with those of other previously published papers. Furthermore, it is found that both the axial and radial velocity profiles are seen to be diminishing functions of the CF parameter. The identified observation may have theoretical implications for a number of engineering procedures, solar energy systems, biofuel cells and extrusion system improvement. Moreover, this work finds application in micro‐fabrication techniques and the chemical industry.