Nanocrystalline Cellulose Concentration Research Articles

The impact of microcrystalline and nanocrystalline cellulose on the antioxidant phenolic compounds level of the cultured Artemisia absinthium

Artemisia absinthium has long been used traditionally as an anti-microbial and antioxidant agent. Various biologically active secondary metabolites, including phenolic compounds such as gallic acid and p-coumaric acid, have been reported from the species. In addition, growing the plants under in vitro conditions enriched with elicitors is a cost-effective approach to enhance secondary metabolite production. This paper examined microcrystalline cellulose (MCC) and nanocrystalline cellulose (NCC) effects on morphological characteristics, phenolic compounds, antioxidant activity, and volatile oil content of A. absinthium. The treated shoots with various concentrations of MCC and NCC were subjected to spectrophotometric, GC–MS, and LC–MS analysis. FESEM-EDX, TEM, XRD, and DLS methods were applied to characterize MCC and NCC properties. Morphological findings revealed that the stem length, dry, and fresh weights were improved significantly (P ≤ 0.05) under several MCC and NCC concentrations. Some treatments enhanced gallic and p-coumaric acid levels in the plant. Although 1.5 g/L of MCC treatment showed the highest antioxidant activity, all NCC treatments reduced the antioxidant effect. The findings suggest that both MCC and NCC, at optimized concentrations, could be exploited as elicitors to improve the secondary metabolite production and morphological properties.

Pengaruh Penambahan Nanoselulosa terhadap Stabilitas Emulsi Santan sebagai Enkapsulan Kurkumin: Stabilitas Emulsi dan Kurkumin

Curcumin is a bioactive compound characterized by its non-polar nature and low stability. Encapsula-tion of curcumin using emulsion system such as coconut milk can increase its stability. However, emulsion systems tend to become unstable during food processing and storage. Therefore, stabilizers and emulsifiers are necessary to ensure stability. Natural stabilizers are preferred over synthetic ones. In this study, nano-celluloses, including nanocrystalline and nanofibrillated cellulose, were used as a stabilizer, and whey pro-tein isolate (WPI) was used as an emulsifier. The primary objective of this study was to investigate the impact of different types and concentrations of nanocellulose on the stability of curcumin and oil-in-water (o/w) emulsions in coconut milk. Two types of commercial nanocellulose materials were utilized: nanocrystalline cellulose (NCC) and nanofibrillated cellulose (NFC). Additionally, a combination of both NCC and NFC was used at concentrations of 0.125 and 0.25% (w/w). The results revealed that the viscosity increased as the concentration of nanocellulose increased. The particle size increased at higher concentrations of NFC and the combination of NCC and NFC, while it decreased with increasing NCC concentration. The lightness va-lue (L*) decreased with higher concentrations of nanocellulose in all sample types. However, this difference was not visually significant. In terms of curcumin stability, the addition of nanocellulose, particularly NFC at a concentration of 0.25%, led to an increase in stability. Higher viscosity resulted in an extended shelf life because it slowed down the rate of creaming index as compared to the control emulsion. Increasing the concentration of nanocellulose enhanced the effectiveness of maintaining the stability of curcumin and oil-in-water emulsions in coconut milk due to the higher viscosity. NFC as well as the combination of NFC and NCC at a concentration of 0.25% proved to be the most preferable option for achieving the highest stability.

Characteristics of nanocomposite film based on elephant foot-yam starch (Amorphophallus paeoniifolius) with different nanocrystalline cellulose concentration

ABSTRACTBionanocomposite film is composed of renewable materials such as polymer with the addition of nanofiller in the form of nanocrystal cellulose (NCC). Biopolymer serves as a matrix, while nanofiller is dispersed to improve the functional properties. NCC is a nanoparticle commonly used in the production of bioplastics, and the addition to nanocomposite film can enhance the mechanical and barrier properties. Therefore, this study aimed to determine the physio-chemical, mechanical, and permeability characteristics of elephant foot-yam starch-based nanocomposite films by adding different concentrations of NCC at 3, 5, and 7 wt.%. The experiment used elephant foot-yam starch, NCC, sorbitol, and carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) as biopolymer, nanofiller, plasticizer, and stabilizer, respectively. The results showed that the optimum concentration was 7 wt.% NCC, showing tensile strength, elongation, WVTR, and thickness consistent with the Japanese Industrial Standard. NCC dispersion showed favorable water solubility and excellent biodegradability, yielding optimal SEM and FTI-R results. SEM analysis showed a well-dispersed structure, while FTI-R showed sharper spectra in specific functional groups. Moreover, XRD showed several diffraction peaks with strong intensity at 2θ = 17.12°(101̅), 22.75° (002), and 35.0° (040), confirming the presence of NCC in the film matrix. Based on the results, this nanocomposite had great potential to be developed into environmentally friendly packaging.

Anthocyanin-Rich Butterfly Pea Petal Extract Loaded Double Pickering Emulsion Containing Nanocrystalline Cellulose: Physicochemical Properties, Stability, and Rheology.

Butterfly pea petal extract (BPE)-loaded water-in-oil-in-water (W/O/W) emulsions were fabricated using nanocrystalline cellulose (NCC) as a hydrophilic stabilizer and polyglycerol polyricinoleate (PGPR) as a hydrophobic emulsifier. The impact of different concentrations of NCC and PGPR in different phase proportions on the emulsion formation, rheology, and stability of an anthocyanin-loaded (pH ≈ 7.0) emulsion was investigated. The mean droplet size of the emulsions increased as the NCC concentration increased, while color intensity (greenness) decreased as the PGPR and NCC concentrations increased. A microscopic examination confirmed that the NCC nanoparticles stabilized the inner W1/O phase, whereas the excess concentration of non-adsorbing NCC nanoparticles was suspended in the continuous aqueous phase. The rheological results showed that robust emulsion networks were formed when the NCC concentration increased. A network structure between the droplets and the development of the NCC network during the continuous phase were attributed to a gel-like behavior. Over the course of seven days, the emulsions with a higher proportion of NCC remained stable, as in samples 3%P-%N, 5%P-2%N, and 5%P@1%N, the total anthocyanin content decreased from 89.83% to 76.49%, 89.40% to 79.65, and 86.63% to 71.40%, respectively. These findings have significant implications for the accurate formulation of particle-stabilized double emulsions for anthocyanin delivery with higher stability.

Rheology of Pickering Emulsions Stabilized and Thickened by Cellulose Nanocrystals over Broad Ranges of Oil and Nanocrystal Concentrations

The rheology of oil-in-water (O/W) emulsions, stabilized and thickened by cellulose nanocrystals, also referred to as nanocrystalline cellulose (NCC), was investigated over broad ranges of NCC and oil concentrations. The NCC concentration was varied from 1.03 to 7.41 wt% based on the aqueous phase. The oil concentration of the emulsion was varied from approximately 10 to 70 wt%. The emulsions produced were highly stable with respect to creaming and coalescence. The emulsions were non-Newtonian in that they exhibited strong shear-thinning behavior. The rheological data were described adequately by a power-law model. The consistency index (K) and the flow behavior index (n) of the emulsions were strongly dependent on the NCC and oil concentrations. At a fixed oil concentration, the consistency index increased whereas the flow behavior index decreased with the increase in NCC concentration. A similar behavior was observed when the NCC concentration was fixed and the oil concentration was increased; that is, the consistency index increased whereas the flow behavior index decreased.

Effect of nanocrystalline cellulose on mechanical, thermal, and barrier properties of polylactic acid blown composite film

AbstractThis study utilized polyethylene glycol (PEG) as a compatibilizer, and prepared nanocrystalline cellulose (NCC) reinforced polylactic acid (PLA) nanocomposite films by blown film extrusion. The physical properties, including the mechanical performance, barrier characteristics, processing flow properties, and thermal properties, were evaluated, and the microstructure was estimated. The consequences showed that the NCC could significantly enhance the physical properties of the PLA nanocomposite film. When the NCC concentration was 3%, the tensile strength of the composite film was 45.02 MPa, and the melting index was 1.03 g/min, which were 17.85% and 6.40% greater than those of the PLA/PEG composite film, respectively. The oxygen transmission rate (OTR) of the composite film with NCC was 5.438 × 10−4 cm3/(m2·d·Pa), which was 96.70% lower compared to the composite film without NCC. Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) analysis showed that adding NCC and PEG could increase the stability of the PLA/PEG/NCC composite film, but NCC had little impact on the thermal properties of the PLA/PEG/NCC composite film. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) analysis showed that the PLA, PEG and NCC had better compatibility and dispersion.

Optimization of Biocomposite Film Based on Whey Protein Isolate and Nanocrystalline Cellulose from Pineapple Crown Leaf Using Response Surface Methodology.

This study employed response surface methodology to optimize the preparation of biocomposites based on whey protein isolate, glycerol, and nanocrystalline cellulose from pineapple crown leaf. The effects of different concentrations of nanocrystalline cellulose as a filler and glycerol as a plasticizer on the thickness, the tensile strength, and the elongation at break on the resulting biocomposite films were investigated. The central composite design was used to determine the optimum preparation conditions for biocomposite films with optimum properties. The regression of a second-order polynomial model resulted in an optimum composition consisting of 4% glycerol and 3.5% nanocrystalline cellulose concentrations, which showed a desirability of 92.7%. The prediction of the regression model was validated by characterizing the biocomposite film prepared based on the optimum composition, at which the thickness, tensile strength, and elongation at break of the biocomposite film were 0.13 mm, 7.16 MPa, and 39.10%, respectively. This optimum composition can be obtained in range concentrations of glycerol (4–8%) and nanocrystalline cellulose (3–7%). Scanning electron microscope images showed that nanocrystalline cellulose dispersed well in the pure whey protein isolate, and the films had a relatively smooth surface. In comparison, a rough and uneven surface results in more porous biocomposite films. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy revealed that nanocrystalline cellulose and glycerol showed good compatibility with WPI film by forming hydrogen bonds. The addition of nanocrystalline cellulose as a filler also decreased the transparency, solubility, and water vapor permeability and increased the crystallinity index of the resulting biocomposite film.

Fabrication and Characterization of PLA/Nanocrystalline Cellulose Nanocomposite Filaments for 3D Printing Application

3D process is an additive manufacturing process widely used due to its low cost, high production rates, and ease process. One of the thermoplastic materials commonly used is polylactic acid (PLA). However, PLA has some weakness including low strength and thermal stability. To improve these properties, the addition of the reinforcement materials into the pure PLA must be done and nanocrystalline cellulose (NCC) is one of the potential reinforcement materials. The influence of NCC addition on the tensile and thermal properties of PLA/NCC nanocomposite filament was investigated. NCC was isolated from the ramie fibers using sulphuric acid hydrolysis. Dried NCC powder and PLA pellets were hand-mixed with different NCC concentrations of 0, 1, 3, and 5 wt%. The filament was prepared using a single-screw extruder machine at 185°C under the constant speed. It was found that the diameter of the filament was lower than that of the nozzle of the extrusion machine. The addition of 1 wt% of NCC into the pure PLA increased the tensile strength by 19.04% (from 48.41 to 57.63 MPa) and elastic modulus by 13.47% (from 1791.62 to 2033.07 MPa). The addition of NCC more than 1 wt% decreased the tensile strength and elastic modulus. The optimum NCC loading was achieved at 1 wt%. The presence of NCC had no a significant effect on the thermal stability of the pure PLA.

Preparation of Agave tequilana Weber nanocrystalline cellulose and its use as reinforcement for acrylic hydrogels

Nanocrystalline cellulose (NCC) was prepared from Agave tequilana Weber blue variety via acid hydrolysis. The NCC was used in forming acrylic acid/acrylamide hydrogels (AA/AM), (80/20 w/w), crosslinked with N-N-methylene bisacrylamide (MBA) at addition levels of 1, 2, 4, and 8 wt% of the monomeric phase. The NCC was dosed at 0.1, 0.5, and 1.0 wt%. Two synthesis routes were used. In the first route, polymerization was performed immediately after mixing the components. In the second route, the mixture of the components was kept at 2 °C ± 1 °C for 24 h before the polymerization (thermal treatment). All the hydrogels were characterized by nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), water absorption tests, scanning electron microscope (SEM) analysis, and rheology tests. The NCC particles had a diameter of approximately 75 nm. The hydrogels that were subjected to the thermal treatment reached the equilibrium after approximately 72 h. The un-treated hydrogels reached the equilibrium after approximately 58 h. The thermally treated samples had a lower swelling degree and the swelling degree decreased as the crosslinking degree and the NCC concentration increased. The swelling kinetics followed the Schott´s pseudo-second-order.

Mechanical and thermal characterization of polypropylene-reinforced nanocrystalline cellulose nanocomposites

This article addresses the effect of nanocrystalline cellulose (NCC) on the mechanical and thermal properties of polypropylene (PP). A new approach was adopted to produce mechanically improved and thermally stable PP-NCC nanocomposite. This approach involved producing optimized PP-NCC nanocomposite by adding NCC nanoparticles to PP matrix at different concentrations by means of injection molding process. The aim of this work was to find the optimum NCC concentration to enhance the mechanical and thermal properties of the PP matrix. The mechanical and thermal behavior of PP-NCC nanocomposite was studied by performing three-point bend, nanoindentation, differential scanning calorimeter (DSC), thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), scanning electron microscope (SEM), and Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy tests. The results showed that the mechanical properties of strength, modulus, and hardness of the nanocomposites increased with the addition of NCC by 6.5%, 19%, and 150%, respectively. DSC results showed that the addition of NCC to PP does not affect the thermal stability (melting temperature). However, TGA showed that upon inclusion of NCC nanoparticles, the thermal stability of the samples improved compared to pure PP except for the 5% added NCC. This is attributed to the presence of NCC rod-like particles that dissipated heat by generating tortuous paths, as depicted in the SEM results and verified by FTIR results.

Effect of coating with novel bio nanocomposites of cationic starch/cellulose nanocrystals on the fundamental properties of the packaging paper

In this research, an environmentally friendly and biodegradable cationic starch (CS)/nanocrystalline cellulose (NCC) nanocomposite coating was produced and it was applied to improve the mechanical, barrier and physical properties of packaging kraft paper via surface coating. The mechanical and barrier properties of the paper were affected by the CS/NCC nanocomposite coating and it was the subject of investigation. CS/NCC nanocomposites were prepared by the solvent method. Structural and morphological properties of the nanocomposite were studied by FESEM and TEM observation. Results showed that the increased NCC nanoparticles loading, increased the tensile strength, oil resistance and air resistance of the coated paper. Also, the water absorption of the coated paper decreased 50% at 5 wt% NCC concentration. In our study it was concluded that the optimized amount for the NCC nanoparticles (among, 3 wt%, 5 wt%, and 7 wt%), is 5 wt%. The CS/NCC nanocomposite coatings are then proposed as a favorable booster which intensifies the mechanical and barrier properties of the paper in the food packaging application.

Ion-Induced Formation of Nanocrystalline Cellulose Colloidal Glasses Containing Nematic Domains.

Controlling the assembly of colloids in dispersion is a fundamental approach toward the production of functional materials. Nanocrystalline cellulose (NCC) is a charged nanoparticle whose colloidal interactions can be modulated from repulsive to attractive by increasing ionic strength. Here, we combine polarized optical microscopy, rheology, and small-angle scattering techniques to investigate (i) the concentration-driven transition from isotropic dispersion to cholesteric liquid crystals and (ii) salt-induced NCC phase transitions. In particular, we report on the formation of NCC attractive glasses containing nematic domains. At increasing NCC concentration, a structure peak was observed in small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS) patterns. The evolution of the structure peak demonstrates the decrease in NCC interparticle distance, favoring orientational order during the isotropic-cholesteric phase transition. Small amounts of salt reduce the cholesteric volume fraction and pitch by a decrease in excluded volume. Beyond a critical salt concentration, NCC forms attractive glasses due to particle caging and reduced motility. This results in a sharp increase in viscosity and formation of viscoelastic glasses. The presence of nematic domains is suggested by the appearance of interference colors and the Cox-Merz rule failure and was confirmed by an anisotropic SAXS scattering pattern at q ranges associated with the presence of nematic domains. Thus, salt addition allows the formation of NCC attractive glasses with mechanical properties similar to those of gels while remaining optically active owed to entrapped nematic domains.

Electrochemical performance of poly(3, 4-ethylenedioxythipohene)/nanocrystalline cellulose (PEDOT/NCC) film for supercapacitor

Supercapacitor electrode based on conducting polymer of poly (3,4-ethylenedioxythipohene) (PEDOT) doped with nanocrystalline cellulose (NCC) films were prepared via electrochemical polymerization technique. Different applied potential, concentration and deposition time were varied to study the effect of electropolymerization potential, NCC concentration and deposition time on the formation of PEDOT/NCC film. The formation of electrochemically polymerized PEDOT/NCC composite was successfully proven with field emission scanning electron microscope (FESEM) and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) techniques where the composites exhibited an interconnected network-like surface morphology. PEDOT/NCC deposited at 1.2 V in 1 mg/ml of NCC for 15 min showed the highest specific capacitance of 117.02 F/g at 100 mV/s with energy density and power density of 11.44 Wh/kg and 99.85 W/kg, respectively at the current density of 0.2 A/g. The incorporation of NCC into PEDOT revealed a lower resistance of charge transfers and improves the cycling stability by retaining 86% of capacitance after 1000 cycles.

The effect of nanocrystalline cellulose on flow properties of fiber crop aqueous suspension

Nanocrystalline cellulose (NCC) a nature-based material, has gained significant attentions for its unique properties. The present study aims to investigate the flow behavior of cellulosic suspension containing non-wood pulp fibers and NCC, by means of rheological and pressure drop measurements. The NCC sample was prepared by sulfuric acid hydrolysis from Acacia mangium fibers. The rheological properties of kenaf/NCC suspensions were studied using viscosity and yield stress measurements. The pressure drop properties of the suspension flow were studied with respect to variation in flow velocity (0.4 m/s–3.6 m/s) and the NCC concentration (70 mg/l and 150 mg/l). The pressure drop results showed that the pulp suspension containing 150 mg/l NCC had higher drag reduction than kenaf suspension alone. The present insights into the flow of pulp/NCC suspension provide a new data and promote the application of NCC in industries.

Improving the cross‐linking degree of oxidized potato starch via addition of nanocrystalline cellulose

Nanocrystalline cellulose (NCC) has attracted considerable interest in the starch modification field due to its biodegradability, renewability, and high biocompatibility. Here, oxidized potato starch was cross‐linked with sodium hexametaphosphate ((NaPO3)6) at different temperatures, pH values, and (NaPO3)6 and NCC concentrations. The bound phosphorus content and the substitution degree of the oxidized cross‐linked potato starch were measured to analyze the effect of NCC on the cross‐linking reaction. The structure of the oxidized cross‐linked potato starch was further analyzed using Fourier transform infrared (FT‐IR) spectroscopy, X‐ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and thermogravimetric (TG) analysis. The results showed that when (NaPO3)6 cross‐linked the starch, the addition of NCC promoted the cross‐linking reaction in the oxidized potato starch. In comparison to the native starch, the thermal stability of the oxidized cross‐linked starch was increased. Additionally, the cross‐linking reaction occurred mainly in the non‐crystalline region of the potato starch and only partly in the crystalline region due to degree of crystallinity decreasing. The optimum conditions for the oxidized potato starch cross‐linking reaction were 1.0 wt.% (NaPO3)6 and 5.0 wt.% NCC at 50°C and a pH of 10.5. Under these conditions, the bound phosphorus content of the potato starch increased by 4.87% compared to the same conditions without NCC addition. In summary, NCC is a good additive to improve the cross‐linking degree of oxidized potato starch.

Enhancement of the mechanical properties of electrospun lignin-based nanofibers by heat treatment

Unique composite nanofibers were produced by electrospinning solvent-fractionated lignin using a small percentage of polyethylene oxide mixed with nanocrystalline cellulose (NCC) for fiber formation and reinforcement, respectively. The materials were characterized and the mechanical properties analyzed as a function of NCC content and thermal exposure (oxidative stabilization and carbonization). At the electrospinning conditions studied, uniform fibers were produced at all NCC concentrations. FTIR analysis of the samples showed shifts in the hydroxyl stretching regions, suggesting intermolecular interactions between the NCC and lignin. After thermal treatment, the mechanical properties of the materials were greatly enhanced for both the lignin and lignin composite fiber mats. The tensile strength and tensile modulus of the mats more than doubled, while the strain at break slightly increased when the materials were exposed to temperatures of 250 °C in an oxidative environment. The tensile strength, tensile modulus and elongation at break values were found to be similar to that of other glassy bioplastics such as polyhydroxybutyrate providing a path to significantly enhance the mechanical properties of technical lignin. NCC loading did not have a significant impact on the performance of the lignin mat for most conditions. Further carbonization of the mats greatly enhanced the stiffness of the mat up to 8 GPa with the inclusion of NCC at the highest loading level. Overall, this work highlights alternative route for the utilization of technical kraft lignin through simple means of heat treatment.

Modification of nanocrystalline cellulose for application as a reinforcing nanofiller in PMMA composites

Nanocrystalline cellulose (NCC) with particle length of 100–500 nm was prepared from microcrystalline cellulose and modified with a reversible addition–fragmentation chain transfer (RAFT) agent, i.e., 4-cyano-4-(phenylcarbonothioylthio)pentanoic acid (CPADB). From the surface of CPADB-modified NCC, methyl methacrylate (MMA) was grafted to produce poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA)-modified NCC. Unmodified NCC, CPADB-modified NCC, and PMMA-modified NCC were further used as reinforcing nanofillers in PMMA composite plates prepared by bulk polymerization of MMA. Regardless of NCC type, the PMMA plates were transparent to visible light at low NCC concentrations but became translucent with increasing NCC concentration. At given NCC concentration, the visible-light transparency of the PMMA/NCC composites decreased in the order PMMA-modified NCC, CPADB-modified NCC, unmodified NCC. PMMA-modified NCC and CPADB-modified NCC showed moderate potential for reinforcing the PMMA matrix, while unmodified NCC detrimentally affected the mechanical properties of the PMMA composites due to more pronounced particle aggregation.

Nano‐crystalline cellulose, chemical blowing agent, and mold temperature effect on morphological, physical/mechanical properties of polypropylene

ABSTRACTPolypropylene (PP)/nano‐crystalline cellulose (NCC) composites and foams were produced through extrusion compounding combined with injection molding. From the samples produced, a complete morphological, physical, and mechanical analysis was performed to study the effect of NCC concentration (0–5wt %), foaming agent content (0 to 2wt %) and mold temperature (30°C and 80°C). NCC was very effective to reduce cell size (42–71%) and increase cell density (5–37 times) of the foams, while slightly increasing the overall density (2–7%). The results showed that NCC addition increased the specific tensile modulus (15–22%), specific tensile strength (1–14%) and specific flexural modulus (13–26%) of PP, but decreased specific impact strength (10–20%) and specific elongation at break (50–96%). © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 2015, 132, 42845.

Surface Treatment of Cellulosic Paper with Starch-Based Composites Reinforced with Nanocrystalline Cellulose

Starch-based composites have become promising materials for eco-friendly packaging applications because of their biodegradability and cost-effectiveness. However, the inherently poor mechanical and barrier properties of starch-based composite films hinder their market potential. Here, nanocrystalline cellulose (NCC) was isolated from cotton cellulose powders using sulfuric acid hydrolysis. Starch-based composite suspensions/films reinforced with 0.1–0.5 wt % of NCC were prepared and characterized. Surface sizing application of the reinforced composite suspensions on cellulosic paper was subsequently studied for improving the mechanical properties and the resistance to air permeability of cellulosic paper. Results revealed that NCC reinforced composite suspensions showed the characteristics of non-Newtonian fluids. The rheological behavior of these suspensions showed strong NCC concentration dependence. NCC addition improved the thermal stability of starch-based composite films. In addition, both the mecha...

Unique viscoelastic behaviors of colloidal nanocrystalline cellulose aqueous suspensions

Unique rheological and phase behaviors of rod-like nanocrystalline cellulose (NCC) suspensions in aqueous media are revealed in the present article. Specifically, the NCC aqueous suspension remained isotropic in a wide NCC concentration range in which the suspension underwent transition from dilute solution to gel, and the relative viscosity of the NCC suspension could be well fitted by the Sato-Teramoto theory in the full concentration range tested. Correspondingly, both zero-shear viscosity and complex viscosity increased monotonically with NCC concentration, and no maximum value was observed along the curves of zero-shear viscosity or complex viscosity versus NCC concentration, indicating a deviation from the lyotropic system. However, a shear-induced birefringence phenomenon was observed, indicating the NCC suspension formed a temporary ordered structure in the external force field but was unable to form an anisotropic (liquid crystalline) phase. The Cox-Merz rule was not applicable for the NCC suspension as a result of oriented domains, i.e., rod-like NCC particles. Moreover, time-concentration superposition was successfully applied to both the storage and loss modulus, attributed to the isotropic feature of the NCC suspension in the tested concentration range. The reason why this NCC suspension remained isotropic could be because of the strong electrostatic repulsions between NCC particles and the weak tendency or driving force of anisotropy formation as a result of the small aspect ratio of NCC particles, Na+ counterions and large amounts of negative charges along the NCC particles. The results suggested that not all the rod-like particles were able to form an anisotropic phase in aqueous suspension, but dominated by various factors.