Addition Of Nanocellulose Research Articles

Production of silica-alginate-nanocellulose composite beads with cinnamon essential oil for antimicrobial sachet

The production of antimicrobial sachet from silica-alginate-nanocellulose composite beads as carrier materials with the addition of nanocellulose (0, 1, 3, 5%) as nanofiller and cinnamon essential oil (CEO) as antimicrobial agent was investigated. The nanocellulose was isolated from oil palm empty fruit bunches by mechanical treatment using a combination of ultrafine grinding and ultrasonication. The produced composite beads were observed by scanning electron microscopy (SEM), Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), and x-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis. The produced composite beads with 5% nanocellulose (BDCN5) was more compact and spherical than others. Meanwhile, the produced antimicrobial sachets were performed with release characteristic and antimicrobial tests. The antimicrobial sachet with the addition of nanocellulose showed the cinnamon essential oil was significantly released from beads for 60 min and had a high inhibitory effect. Almost all microorganisms tested by BDCN5 showed a high inhibitory effect, 5.43% for inhibiting Escherichia coli, 5.19% for Salmonella sp, 3.36% for Aspergillus sp, and 8.72% for Staphylococcus aureus.

Nanocellulose reinforcement in paper produced from fiber blending

This study aimed to evaluate the effect of nanocellulose addition on the physical–mechanical properties of the paper produced from different fiber blends, besides comparing two nanocellulose addition methods. Three different fibers were used for fiber blending (eucalyptus, sisal, and pine). Handsheets were formed based on the mixing of all possible combinations at a 45/55 ratio in 2% consistency and 60 g/m2. Handsheet reinforcements were performed by two methods: The mixture method (MT) was a mixture of nanocellulose along with pulp during paper formation in 3, 5, and 10% addition; the coating method (CT) was the superficial coating of dry formed papers in 10% addition. Nanocellulose was produced by mechanical microfibrillation of sisal pulp. Handsheets were evaluated by physical and strength properties. Nanocellulose addition increased thickness, volume, grammage, apparent density, opacity, roughness, tensile strength, tensile index, stretch, bursting index, tear index, and fold endurance by 8.7, 8.8, 10.4, 2.1, 4.1, 23.2, 45.7, 31.8, 20.1, 14.2, 21.1, and 271.6% but reduced bulk, brightness, and air permeance by 1.9, 3.4, and 71.7%, respectively. The reinforcement methods presented distinct results. In physical properties, an increasing tendency toward nanocellulose (MT) increase was observed in thickness, grammage, and apparent density despite the decreasing trend in air permeance. No tendency was observed in other physical properties. In general, CT presented higher values of thickness, grammage, bulk, and brightness but lower values of apparent density and opacity, compared to MT. The mixture method showed an increasing tendency in strength properties with the increase of nanocellulose content. CT obtained fewer strength properties compared to MT.

The possible reduction of phenol-formaldehyde resin spread rate by its nanocellulose-reinforcement in plywood manufacturing process

The possible reduction of phenol-formaldehyde resin spread rate by its nanocellulose-reinforcement in plywood manufacturing process. The aim of the study was to investigate the possibility of phenol-formaldehyde (PF) resin consumption in plywood by its reinforcement with cellulosic nanoparticles (NCC). In order to determine the possible reduction of resin spread rate bonding quality was assessed both after boiling in water for 24h and after ageing test including i.e. boiling in water. Studies have shown that the addition of nanocellulose made it possible to significantly reduce the amount of the applied adhesive. Reference samples were characterized by similar shear strength values to experimental plywood manufactured with the adhesive application of 140 g/m2. NCC-reinforcement resulted also in the increase of mechanical properties such as modulus of elasticity and bending strength. The analysis of the data confirmed the tendency observed during bonding quality evaluation and it was concluded that resin modification allowed to reduce its spread rate by 30 g/m2.

The effect of nanocrystalline cellulose and TEMPO-oxidized nanocellulose on the compatibility of polypropylene/cyclic natural rubber blends

The effect of nanocrystalline cellulose (NCC) and nanofiber cellulose (NFC) was estimated as a means of reinforcing and compatibilizing agent of polypropylene/ cyclic natural rubber (PP/CNR) blend in terms of mechanical and thermal properties. The morphological effect of NCC and NFC on the PP/CNR blend property was determined through several characterization techniques, i.e. SEM, contact and TGA/DTG. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) images revealed that the addition of NCC and NFC became more homogenous than without the addition of nanocellulose. The improvement of nanocomposites was also observed on the result of interphase surface tension and thermal stability. This improvement was assumed as the result of physically/ chemically interaction of nanocellulose with the backbone of PP and CNR, in which the nanocellulose can be imagined acting as a bridge to link the PP and CNR’s backbone.

The gastrointestinal fate of inorganic and organic nanoparticles in vitamin D-fortified plant-based milks

Both organic and inorganic nanoparticles are often added to food and beverage products to modify their quality attributes, such as their look, feel, flavor, or shelf life. However, there is still poor understanding of how these nanoparticles behave inside the human gut after ingestion, particularly their impact on macronutrient digestion and vitamin bioavailability. In this study, nanocellulose, nanoemulsion, and titanium dioxide (TiO2) particles were used as examples of functional organic and inorganic nanoparticles, while vitamin D-fortified plant-based milks were used to model food products. The plant-based milks were fortified with this vitamin by mixing them with vitamin-D loaded nanoemulsion droplets. The TiO2 nanoparticles were shown to be most effective at increasing the whiteness of the fortified milk, whereas the nanocellulose ones were most effective at increasing the shear viscosity. Alterations in the physicochemical and structural properties of the nanoparticle-loaded model foods were measured as they passed through a harmonized (INFOGEST) in vitro gastrointestinal tract (GIT). The oil bodies in the plant-based milks were strongly flocculated in the stomach but they were still fully digested in the small intestine. The distribution of the nanoparticles in the intestinal fluids was analyzed by optical and transmission electron microscopy, which showed that they were well dispersed, presumably due to protein-adsorption to their surfaces and the mechanical action of the GIT fluids. The addition of TiO2 or nanocellulose to the fortified milks did not significantly affect lipid digestion or vitamin bioaccessibility. Interestingly, our results showed that the bioaccessibility of vitamin D in the plant-based milk was relatively low (~20%) in all samples analyzed. We hypothesized that this may have been due to aggregation and precipitation of the vitamin-loaded micelles in the presence of other components in the GIT fluids, such as calcium ions. Our results are useful for understanding the impact of different kinds of nanoparticles on the behavior of foods in the gastrointestinal tract.

Thermal properties of polyethylene compositions with micro-and nanocellulose

The effect of micro- and nanocellulose addition on the thermal properties of polyethylene compositions has been studied by means of thermogravimetric analysis and pyrolysis-gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. The main temperature characteristics of the thermo- and thermo-oxidative degradation of the compositions are determined. The influence of micro- and nanocellulose additives on change of the distribution of hydrocarbon pyrolysis products of composite materials was established.

High translucent of polymeric membrane reinforced by nanocellulose from oil palm empty fruit bunches

Polymeric membranes have gained high interest since they provide great potential to be used as functional products in energy, electronics and remediation applications. In this study, cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs) and TEMPO-oxidized cellulose nanofibrils (TOCNs) extracted from oil palm empty fruit bunches (OPEFB) cross-linked with poly(methyl vinyl ether co-maleic acid)/PMVEMA and poly(ethylene glycol)/(PEG) by insitu polymerization to produce polymeric membranes. Characterization of resultant polymeric membranes was employed by microscopic observation to evaluate membrane morphology. UV-Vis analysis and mechanical testing were conducted to observe the effect of nanocellulose addition towards membrane translucent and mechanical properties. Results indicated that the presence of nanocellulose improved membrane translucent and mechanical properties by only 5 weight (wt)% of addition. CNCs addition has higher translucent improvement on polymeric membrane compared to TOCNs. However, TOCNs addition has higher improvement in mechanical properties than CNCs. Polymeric membrane reinforced by nanocellulose has potential utilization for thin film-based composite.

Potential Application of Nanocellulose for Filaments Production: A Review

Some researchers have reported the successful experiments to produce nanocellulose-based filaments by several spinning methods, including wet spinning and dry spinning. The addition of nanocellulose to the composites was found to improve the mechanical and thermal properties of produced filaments or continuous fibers. However, there are several parameters of spinning that needs to be considered to achieve better quality of filaments, including high aspect ratio of nanocellulose, low viscosity of dope (low solid content), high shear rate in the spinneret, and high draw ratio. This review article focuses on brief explanation of cellulose structure and how to isolate nanocellulose, nanocellulose-based filaments by wet spinning and dry spinning methods, characteristics of wet and dry spun fibers, as well as parameters that affect spinning process. For example, the strength of filament was attributed to the aspect ratio or slenderness and crystallinity of nanocellulose. Further details of the potential application of nanocellulose for filament production is presented here as the reference for application in textile, medical, and other fields.

Thermal Performance of Hybrid-Inspired Coolant for Radiator Application.

Due to the increasing demand in industrial application, nanofluids have attracted the considerable attention of researchers in recent decades. The addition of nanocellulose (CNC) with water (W) and ethylene glycol (EG) to a coolant for a radiator application exhibits beneficial properties to improve the efficiency of the radiator. The focus of the present work was to investigate the performance of mono or hybrid metal oxide such as Al2O3 and TiO2 with or without plant base-extracted CNC with varying concentrations as a better heat transfer nanofluid in comparison to distilled water as a radiator coolant. The CNC is dispersed in the base fluid of EG and W with a 60:40 ratio. The highest absorption peak was noticed at 0.9% volume concentration of TiO2, Al2O3, CNC, Al2O3/TiO2, and Al2O3/CNC nanofluids which indicates a better stability of the nanofluids’ suspension. Better thermal conductivity improvement was observed for the Al2O3 nanofluids in all mono nanofluids followed by the CNC and TiO2 nanofluids, respectively. The thermal conductivity of the Al2O3/CNC hybrid nanofluids with 0.9% volume concentration was found to be superior than that of the Al2O3/TiO2 hybrid nanofluids. Al2O3/CNC hybrid nanofluid dominates over other mono and hybrid nanofluids in terms of viscosity at all volume concentrations. CNC nanofluids (all volume concentrations) exhibited the highest specific heat capacity than other mono nanofluids. Additionally, in both hybrid nanofluids, Al2O3/CNC showed the lowest specific heat capacity. The optimized volume concentration from the statistical analytical tool was found to be 0.5%. The experimental results show that the heat transfer coefficient, convective heat transfer, Reynolds number and the Nusselt number have a proportional relationship with the volumetric flow rate. Hybrid nanofluids exhibit better thermal conductivity than mono nanofluids. For instance, a better thermal conductivity improvement was shown by the mono Al2O3 nanofluids than the CNC and TiO2 nanofluids. On the other hand, superior thermal conductivity was observed for the Al2O3/CNC hybrid nanofluids compared to the other mono and hybrid ones (Al2O3/TiO2).

The effect of nanocellulose addition to phenol-formaldehyde adhesive in water-resistant plywood manufacturing

This study examined the effect of applying cellulose nanoparticles as a filling material for phenol-formaldehyde (PF) resin in the process of manufacturing water-resistant plywood. Based on investigations that concerned the rheological behavior of resin mixture containing various amounts of nanofiller, the modification of resin resulted in a major increase of viscosity. Although Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy did not fully explain the effect of modification on the chemical structure of the adhesive, there was a noticeable improvement in the morphology of cured nanocellulose-reinforced resin. Based on the bonding quality results, the optimum amount of nanocellulose was 3 PBW (parts by weight) per 100 PBW of resin and it allowed the achievement of a notable increase in shear strength values. Moreover, introduction of cellulosic nanoparticles had a positive effect on mechanical properties such as bending strength and modulus of elasticity. In summary, the research showed that it is possible to apply nanocellulose as a modifier for the adhesives in the process of manufacturing water-resistant plywood.

Improving Physical Properties of Polyvinyl Alcohol Film through The Addition of Nanocellulose Prepared from Palm Oil Solid Waste

Cellulose from the palm oil solid waste (oil palm shells and stems) be isolated and used as a filler material in a biodegradable plastic, in order to improve its mechanical properties. Polyvinyl Alcohol (PVA) is a biodegradable polymer and compatible for nanocellulose fillers, where its mechanical properties can reach the same level as the conventional plastic. In this study, nanocellulose has been successfully prepared from the oil palm shells and stems with acid hydrolysis method and applied as a filler for PVA/nanocellulose film composite. The characterizations include Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR), Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) and mechanical properties (tensile and elongation). The FTIR and DSC analysis confirm the improvement of the mechanical properties after the addition of nanocellulose, where the tensile strength reaches 14.64 kgf/mm2 with the optimal thermal ratio at 203.5°C. Nevertheless, the addition of 20% nanocellulose reduces the value of tensile strength and elongation.

Effects of nanocellulose formulation on physicomechanical properties of Aquazol–nanocellulose composites

Aquazol [poly(2-ethyl-2-oxazoline)] is a widely used polymeric material for conservation because of its high reversibility and excellent compatibility with various types of material. However, it is hydrophilic and not recommended for use in weight-bearing applications. The objective of this study is to introduce cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs) and cellulose nanofibers (CNFs) into Aquazol to evaluate the physicomechanical properties of the resultant composites. Several nanocellulose addition formulations involving two types of nanocellulose were designed at various addition levels. Water sorption investigations revealed that the addition of CNCs or CNFs reduced the maximum moisture content of the resultant composites when compared to the unfilled Aquazol. The tensile test results showed that the critical addition level of CNF (2 wt%) is lower than that of CNC (10 wt%) for the nanocellulose to start acting effectively as a mechanically reinforcing agent. Notably, compared with using a single type of nanocellulose for reinforcement, greater reinforcement was observed when both CNCs and CNFs were combinedly added. Field emission scanning electron microscopy indicated that these strong reinforcement outcomes were probably a result of branch-like structures forming among the mixed fillers. The addition of nanocellulose in general resulted in composites having marginally lower thermal stability and optical transparency. In this study, we demonstrated the increased retention of mechanical properties in variously filled composites exposed to anticipated service conditions (55% RH; 23 °C). Crucially, the discoveries in this study indicate that mixed CNC and CNF fillers could be a reasonable option for future applications where lower levels of nanocellulose are desired for optical transparency considerations.

Membrane distillation crystallization using PVDF membrane incorporated with TiO2 nanoparticles and nanocellulose

Abstract Polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) membrane was improved using TiO2 nanoparticles and nanocellulose for membrane distillation crystallization in this work. Besides the addition of TiO2 nanoparticles and nanocellulose, PVDF membrane was post-modified with octadecyltrichlorosilane after phase inversion using a dual coagulation bath. The addition of hydrophilic TiO2 nanoparticles and nanocellulose reduced membrane hydrophobicity, but the dispersed TiO2 nanoparticles assisted silane modification to improve surface hydrophobicity. Besides reducing the agglomeration of TiO2 nanoparticles, nanocellulose induced the formation of larger pore size and higher porosity as proven in SEM images and gravimetric measurement, respectively. The abundant moieties of nanocellulose accelerated the exchange between solvent and non-solvent during phase inversion for the formation of large pore size and porosity, but membrane thickness increased due to the thickening effects. The modified membrane showed higher water permeate flux in membrane distillation with salt rejection greater than 97%. Severe fouling in membrane distillation crystallization was not observed.

Nanocellulose‐Mediated Transition of Lithium‐Rich Pseudo‐Quaternary Metal Oxide Nanoparticles into Lithium Nickel Cobalt Manganese Oxide (NCM) Nanostructures

AbstractWe report the syntheses of various compounds within the pseudo‐quaternary system of the type LiwNixCoyMnzOδ (δ≤1) (pre‐NCMs). Four different compositions of this compound were realized as ultrasmall crystalline nanoparticles of 1–4 nm diameter using low‐temperature solvothermal reaction conditions in tert‐butanol at only 170 °C. All of the pre‐NCMs crystallize in the rock‐salt structure and their lithium content is between 20% and 30% with respect to the complete metal content. By adjusting the lithium content to 105% stoichiometry in the solvothermal reaction, the pre‐NCMs can easily react to the respective Li(NixCoyMnz)O2 (NCM) nanoparticles. Furthermore, nanosized desert‐rose structured NCMs were obtained after addition of nanocellulose during the synthesis. By using the mixed metal monoxides as precursor for the NCMs, cation mixing between lithium and nickel is favored and gets more pronounced with increasing nickel content. The cation mixing effect compromises good electrochemical capacity retention, but the desert‐rose structure nevertheless enables enhanced stability at high power conditions, especially for NCM333.

Influence of Nanocellulose Additive on the Film Properties of Native Rice Starch-based Edible Films for Food Packaging.

Starch-based edible films, which are transparent, odourless, biodegradable, tasteless, and semi-permeable to gases and food additives, have attracted the attention of the research community as the alternative food packaging materials to synthetic plastics. However, they pose poor water resistance and mechanical strength that should be improved for food packaging application. Few relevant patents to the topic have been reviewed and cited. Inclusion of nanoadditives in starch films can not only improve their mechanical and barrier properties but also can act as antimicrobial agent, oxygen scavenger, and biosensor. The present investigation is focussed on the effects of nanocellulose extracted from banana pseudostems on the film properties of rice starch-based edible films. Nanocellulose was extracted from dried banana pseudostems through isolation of cellulose and acid hydrolysis. Rice starch-based edible films were prepared through solution casting by adding nanocellulose of varying concentrations (0%, 2%, 4%, 6%, 8% & 10%). The film properties, such as Water Vapour Permeability (WVP), mechanical strength (tensile strength, Young's modulus and percentage of elongation), film solubility in water and film colour, were determined. The test results were discussed and the effects of nanocellulose additives were studied. From the results, it was clear that the addition of nanocellulose had improved the film properties, making the rice starch-based edible films a promising choice for food packaging applications.

Fabrication of κ‐carrageenan and whey protein isolate‐based films reinforced with nanocellulose: optimization via RSM

ABSTRACTThe aim of this study was to prepare nanocomposite films composed of whey protein isolate (W) and carrageenan (C) with nanocellulose (N) for food packaging applications. Response surface methodology was applied to investigate the effect of W concentration (v/v, 0–100%), glycerol/sorbitol (G/S) ratio (0–1), and N concentration (w/w, 0–5%) on the physicomechanical properties of film samples. Higher W and N contents and lower G/S ratios showed positive effect on rigidity of film samples, while introducing high concentration of N increased the water vapor permeability values with increasing plasticizer and C concentration. The highest water uptake values were observed in C based films, while a higher C content resulted in lower opacity values. The addition of nanocellulose into whey protein and carrageenan blend films in the presence of a plasticizer mixture improved the suitability of selected biopolymers for food packaging applications when compared to their neat films. © 2020 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 2020, 137, 48902.

Mechanical and barrier properties of Tapioca/PVA composite films reinforced with pineapple leaf nanocellulose

Studies on mechanical and barrier properties of Tapioca/PVA composites reinforced with pineapple leaf nanocellulose have been done to obtain an alternative new biodegradable label for freshness label of smart packaging for food. The aim of this research is to investigate changes of mechanical and barrier properties of Tapioca/PVA/Nanocellulose compared with Tapioca/PVA composite. Composition of Tapioca/PVA was 50:50 with nanocellulose concentration vary from 1, 3, 6 and 10% in composites. Tensile strength and elongation were used to evaluate the mechanical properties of the films. While for water barrier properties was investigated by vapor transmission rate. The microstructure of the films was evaluated by using FT-IR, and SEM. The results showed that increasing the concentration of nanocellulose decreasing the tensile strength and elongation of composites. The concentration of 1% nanocellulose increased the WVTR and in greater amount will reduce the value of WVTR. Addition of nanocellulose decreased the transparency of the composite films. For further application, it can be used as a label for freshness label of smart packaging with the addition of functional material.

Carboxymethyl and Nanofibrillated Cellulose as Additives on the Preparation of Chitosan Biocomposites: Their Influence Over Films Characteristics

The aim of this research was to prepare chitosan composite films with commercial carboxymethylcellulose (CMC) and nanofibrillated cellulose (CNF) from palmito sheaths pulp (agroindustrial discard) and compare their influence over the film’s properties. The morphology of cellulose additives influenced their interaction with the polymer matrix as verified on the FTIR spectra and on the SEM images, where the poor dispersibility of CMC could be visualized as aggregates and clusters on chitosan matrix. The extensive defibrillated particles of CNF were well dispersed mainly by their high number of hydrogen bridges that promoted an increase in crystallinity index even in the low level of addition (0.5%). Molecule interactions directly influenced the film’s mechanical properties, where the addition of 1.5% of CNF resulted in an increment of 1.300% for Young’s modulus and 280% for tensile strength; a reduction of 20% of UV light transmittance and a decrease of almost 50% on water absorption. By the other side, even with an increase on the crystallinity index, the addition of CMC resulted in films with low mechanical and barrier properties as compared to the control film. The addition of nanocellulose overcame chitosan main weakness and leaded to a total renewable, biodegradable nanocomposite with adequate mechanical and physical properties to be applied on package development and with the extra attractive of being obtained from an agroindustrial residue, contributing with sustainability and environmental safety concerns.

Crystallization kinetics and morphology of small concentrations of cellulose nanofibrils (CNFs) and cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs) melt-compounded into poly(lactic acid) (PLA) with plasticizer

In the present study, very small concentrations of CNCs and CNFs were melt-compounded into PLA using a solvent-free process where poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) was used to disperse the nanoparticles in PLA. As a comparison, the commercial nucleant, talc, was processed similarly into PLA. CNC and CNF were shown to be efficient nucleants for PLA, similar to talc, and conventional Avrami and Lauritzen-Hoffman analysis of the crystallization behavior was performed for isothermal temperatures from 90 °C to 130 °C across all compositions. From the Avrami analysis, the crystallization rate, half-time, and Avrami exponent were calculated and suggested a synergistic effect of nanocellulose and PEG, even at very small concentrations. The crystallization half-time was lower than talc at higher temperatures indicating faster crystallization for samples containing nanocellulose under certain conditions. Analysis of secondary nucleation revealed a decrease in the surface energy for CNC containing samples, further suggesting that, given the enhanced mobility of plasticized PLA, very small concentrations of CNC are effective nucleation agents. Lastly, scanning electron microscopy was used to correlate the crystal morphology of chemically etched samples with the thermal analysis. Coarsening of the microstructure was observed initially with the addition of PEG, and further coarsening was observed upon the addition of nanocellulose.

Nanocellulose-based fibres derived from palm oil by-products and their in vitro biocompatibility analysis

Fibres with nanocellulose isolated from oil palm empty fruit bunches (OPEFBs) were produced. Nanocellulose and PVA-nanocellulose fibres were prepared by wet spinning in an acetone coagulation bath without drawing. The addition of nanocellulose was varied from 10% to 30%, to reveal the beneficial effects of nanocellulose content on the properties of produced spun-fibres. Higher concentration of nanocellulose increased the stiffness of spun-fibres. PVA and PVA-bacterial cellulose fibres were also produced as a control and for comparison, respectively. The nanocellulose fibre formed a compact structure, while PVA fibres had hollow structures. The effect of the produced spun-fibres on the biocompatibility of calf pulmonary artery endothelial cells was assayed by an MTT test. Based on the MTT assay the addition of nanocellulose increased the percentage of cell viability of the obtained spun-fibres slightly. These results point towards the use of sustainable sources of nanocellulose as a beneficial and biocompatible fibre material.