Mycotoxins Research Articles

Fungal and Mycotoxins Assessment of Honeysuckle in China

Fungal and Mycotoxins Assessment of Honeysuckle in China

МИКОТОКСИНЫ И МИКОТОКСИКОЗЫ ЖИВОТНЫХ – АКТУАЛЬНАЯ ПРОБЛЕМА СЕЛЬСКОГО ХОЗЯЙСТВА

Mycotoxins and mycotoxicoses represent an actual problem for various fields of agriculture – cattle breeding, pig breeding, poultry farming, fish farming. Mycotoxins (MT) cause harm to the health of animals and enormous economic damage, products of animal husbandry contaminated with mycotoxins can pose a threat to human health. This problem is important from the point of view of providing food and fodder security of the country.

Mycotoxins, Food and Health

Mycotoxins, Food and Health

Detection of aflatoxin-producing fungi isolated from Nile tilapia and fish feed.

Contamination of fish by fungi and their mycotoxins poses major health concerns to human and animals. Therefore, our study was aimed to investigate Aspergillus flavus (A. flavus) infections and the levels of aflatoxins in Nile tilapia, Oreochromis niloticus (O. niloticus), and fish feed. Samples from O. niloticus and fish feed (n=25 for each) were randomly collected from private fish farms at Qena province, Egypt, during the winter season. Different Aspergillus spp. were detected in 60 % and 64 % of O. niloticus and fish feed, respectively. HPLC-based analysis revealed aflatoxin-producing activity in 75 % and 83 % of A. flavus isolates from fish and fish feed, respectively. While 96 % of O. niloticus muscles and fish feed samples were contaminated with aflatoxins, the detected levels were below the permissible limits, i.e. 20 µg/kg. Moreover, experimental infection with toxicogenic A. flavus isolates was conducted to evaluate their pathogenicity in O. niloticus. Expectedly, experimental infections of O. niloticus with A. flavus were associated with several clinical symptoms reported in naturally infected fish, e.g. yellow coloration with skin ulceration, hemorrhagic ulcerative patches on gills and skin, corneal opacity, fin rot and abdominal distention. Furthermore, aflatoxicogenic A. flavus isolates from fish were sensitive to herbal clove oil. Even though the measured levels of aflatoxin were below permissible limits, effort should be placed on further reduction of exposure to genotoxic and carcinogenic mycotoxins.

Synchronous fruit splitting in nutmeg using plant growth regulators

In this study, a simple technique with hormone treatment was developed for synchronous splitting (ripening) of nutmeg fruits. The methodology involves harvesting physiologically mature fruits, dipping the harvested fruits in 500 ppm ethrel (2-chloroethylphosphonic acid) solution for 10 minutes, and then storing them in shade. By this method, 90 to 100 per cent fruits split in 18 to 20 hours. Width of the split which helps in easy separation of nut from fruit pericarp was on par with that of naturally split fruits. The dry recovery, nut to mace ratio and fresh and dry weight of the nut and mace of the treated fruits were comparable with naturally split fruits. The intrinsic quality i.e. , oil, oleoresin and moisture content of nut and mace of treated fruits were on par with that of naturally split fruits. This indicates that nut and mace of treated fruits had similar physical and intrinsic quality parameters as that of naturally split fruits. The advantage of the method is that it is very effective in preventing aflatoxin (mycotoxin) contamination of nut and mace due to soil contact of naturally split fruits that fall on the ground. The method for synchronous fruit splitting in nutmeg is very simple and can be easily practiced by farmers. It also saves time, labour and money both for harvesting and processing of nutmeg. The cost of ethrel treatment would be around ` 800 per ton of fruit. This is the first report on the induction of synchronous and uniform fruit splitting (ripening) of pre-split harvested fruits in nutmeg.

Patulin: A mycotoxin in apples

Patulin: A mycotoxin in apples

Assessment of Aflatoxins and Aflatoxigenic Fungi Associated with Dried Vegetables from Selected Markets with in Kaduna Metropolis

Vegetable are considered as the leafy outgrowth of plants shoot used as food. These include those plants or plant part used in making soup or served as an integral part of main meal they are sources of nutrients, vitamins and minerals. Drying is a cheap means of preserving vegetables because they are prone to fungi contamination. The assessment of aflatoxigenic fungi associated with dried vegetables (Baobab, Red chilli pepper, Okro and Tomatoes) from selected markets within Kaduna metropolis were investigated. A total of forty (40) samples (ten samples each) of the dried vegetables were analyzed for fungi and total aflatoxin. Fungi were identified and characterized using the conventional and Molecular technique and Total Aflatoxin were identified using Enzyme linked immune-sorbent assay (ELISA). The fungi identified were Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus niger . The result of the total aflatoxin revealed that Baobab from Sabo (SB 001) had the highest aflatoxin of 31.6μg/kg while Baobab from Barnawa (BRW 001), with aflatoxin content of 18.80μg/kg. Baobab from Tudun wada (TW 001) with aflatoxin content of 15.00μg/kg, Baobab from Malali (MLL 001) had aflatoxin content of 12.10μg/kg is higher while Baobab from Central Market had aflatoxin of 1.60μg/kg. The vegetable with the highest aflatoxin content is Baobab from Sabo (SB 001) had aflatoxin content of 31.6μg/kg, while Okra from kamazou (KMZ 003) with aflatoxin content of 27.00μg/kg and Red Chilli Pepper from Malali (MLL004) had aflatoxin content of 26.40μg/kg, Tomatoes from Malali (MLL 002) had the lowest aflatoxin content of 6.50μg /kg. These result can serve as baseline for enacting laws and observing the critical control point as the ingestion of such mycotoxins contaminated vegetables have enormous health significance. Because these toxins are capable of causing diseases in man and animals.

Identification and quantification of fumonisin-producing Fusarium species in grain and soil samples from Egypt and the Philippines

Fumonisins are considered among the important mycotoxins associated with human esophageal cancer and livestock diseases. These mycotoxins are mainly produced by Fusarium verticillioides in tropical and subtropical regions such as the Philippines and Egypt and humid temperate regions of the world. The classical taxonomy of fumonisin-producing fungi is challenging, and species-specific PCR reactions are commonly used to clearly identify species within these complexes. The aim of this study was to isolate, identify and quantify fumonisin-producing species in maize, wheat and soil samples from Egypt and the Philippines, and to test Eppendorf-Agar as a long term preservation method. We isolated 44 single spore isolates (39 from Egypt and five from the Philippines) from the collected samples (25 isolates from maize, five from wheat and 14 from soil). In addition, we quantified the content of fumonisin-producing fungi DNA from 15 maize samples and six wheat samples from Egypt, and from six maize samples from the Philippines. morphological and microscopic identification indicated that 21 isolates from Egypt and five from the Philippines were F. verticillioides , one isolate was F. proliferatum and two isolates were F. nygamai . Molecular identification indicated that all these isolates belonged to F. verticillioides. Most were from maize, four were from soil and only one was from wheat. Other Fusarium species isolated included F. oxysporum and F. solani . No F. graminearum isolates were found. The quantitative PCR (qPCR) results obtained using the Taqfum-2f, Vpgen-3R primer pair and the FUMp probe for quantification of fumonisin-producing Fusarium species showed that fumonisin-producing Fusarium isolates were present in four maize samples from the Philippines and eight maize samples from Egypt. The Fusarium DNA levels from fumonisin-producing isolates were in the range of 13 × 10 -3 to 61 × 10 -1 ng ng -1 total DNA in positive samples, except in one maize sample from the Philippines with high concentration of >0.5 ng ng -1 total DNA. This indicates that >50 % of all DNA was Fusarium DNA. No fumonisin-producing Fusarium DNA was detected in the wheat samples and in the remaining maize samples. These results showed that PCR-techniques based on qPCR can be used to identify fumonisin-producing Fusarium species and quantify risks of mycotoxin contaminated grains.

Decontamination of Fumonisin B1 in maize grain by Pleurotus eryngii and antioxidant enzymes

Fumonisin B 1 (FB 1 ) is among the most common mycotoxins found in maize kernels and maize products worldwide. The microbiological process of detoxification and transformation of toxic organic pollutants is a promising method for foodstuffs decontamination. Some basidiomycetes, such as the Pleurotus eryngii species complex, include several important commercial edible varieties that can detoxify polycyclic organic compounds and a range of wastes and pollutants. We investigated the potential role of P. eryngii , one of the most consumed mushrooms, in the decontamination of FB 1 in maize. In addition, selected antioxidant enzymes, (soluble peroxidase (POD), catalase (CAT) and ascorbate peroxidase), primarily involved in control of cell hydrogen peroxide levels, and lignin degradation, were analyzed, to evaluate their contributions to the molecular mechanisms of FB 1 by P. eryngii . FB 1 decontamination by P. eryngii and involvement of CAT and POD enzymes in the control of toxic decontamination levels of H 2 O 2 were demonstrated. A consistent reduction of FB 1 was observed at different incubation times. The average decrease levels of FB 1 , with respect to the control cultures, ranged from 45 to 61% (RSD < 15%). This study is a possible eco-friendly approach to reducing this mycotoxin in the feed supply chains.

Factors of wheat grain resistance to Fusarium head blight

Fusarium head blight (FHB), caused by Fusarium graminearum , is an important wheat disease that affects grain yield and conformation, and contaminates grains with mycotoxins, including the trichothecene deoxynivalenol (DON). The impacts of Fusarium infections on grain filling, grain deformation and rheological properties were assessed under different environmental conditions. Genotypes with elevated grain anthocyanin content were used. Resistance of seven wheat varieties and breeding lines was assessed with artificial infections in the field. Grains from infected and control plots were assessed for proportion of Fusarium damaged kernels, grain filling (thousand kernel weight) and DON accumulation. Biochemical and rheological properties of harvested grain were also assessed. Grain resistance to Fusarium has several components, including resistance against DON accumulation, deformation and stability of grain filling. These mechanisms are interdependent but act independently. Resistance against DON contamination was highly influenced by environmental conditions, but environment had little effect on the other resistance components. Anthocyanins and protein concentrations were unchanged in infected grains, suggesting that FHB does not affect grain biosynthesis processes but impacts the transport of assimilates caused by changes in grain composition. We suggest that this is the reason for the alterations of rheological properties. The greater the grain resistance, the less was the impact on dough properties. This study suggests that the resilience of rheological properties under FHB infection pressure is an additional component of grain resistance to the disease.

Infants breastfed: a require or a potential risk

The Ochratoxin A(OTA) is a nephrotoxic and carcinogenic mycotoxin which generates important risks for human health worldwide owing to food contamination merchandise, environment. Dietary contaminants ingested by nursing mothers can be found in their breast milk. Nevertheless, the rate of OTA lactation transfer has not been investigated so far at various stages of breastfeeding. The study aimed at assessing the presence and values of the mycotoxin Ochratoxin A in human milk in Isfahan, Iran, and sought to evaluate the potential risk for the newborn babies based on the mycotoxin taking. 41 lactating women were randomly selected and breast milk samples after delivery were taken to determine the prevalence of Ochratoxin A value by enzyme linked immunosorbent assay and high performance liquid chromatography technique. Considering the total samples analyzed, only one case was contaminated with Ochratoxin A at 45 ng/l. Accordingly, the results indicated the exposure of mothers and neonates to Ochratoxin A and although the observed incidence was low, it is recommended that further investigations be conducted on mycotoxin contamination in large quantity both in food and biological fluids in addition to protection strategies to decrease the risk in Isfahan and other parts of the country.

Feature Issue: Tools for Fusarium mycotoxin reduction in food and feed chains

Feature Issue: Tools for Fusarium mycotoxin reduction in food and feed chains

Impact of Environmental Conditions on the Germination Time of Penicillium chrysogenum

In predictive mycology, most of the studies have been concerned with the influence of some environmental factors on fungal growth and production of mycotoxins at steady-state. However, germination should be the main step to be focused on, because a product is spoiled shortly after fungal conidia had germinated. In most of the studies dedicated to fungi, germination experiments were carried out immediately after spores were produced and harvested. Very few studies were concerned with the effect of storage conditions on the germination of fungal spores. The aim of this study is to show the impact of relative humidity, time of storage and temperature on germination time for the mould free shelf-life of food products determination. The effects of relative humidity, RH, time of storage, t and temperature, T on τ were assessed according to a Doehlert design in the range, 20-100%, 2-28 days and 5-25°C, respectively. The paramount influence of the relative humidity during storage on the germination time of the conidia of Penicillium chrysogenum was highlighted. An increase of the germination time was shown at reduced RH's, for increased periods of time and at lower temperatures. We can also observe a germination time, more important for conidia stored compared to fresh conidia obtained in the laboratory. The key factor was relative humidity, but time may be also of paramount importance for storage periods that exceed many weeks.

Production of Secondary Metabolites from Two Penicillium StrainsAdapted to Different Temperature Conditions: A Study on DifferentialResponse of Fungal Strains to Temperature Stress

In the present investigation, temperature dependent production of secondary metabolites of two Penicillium strains i.e., cold tolerant Penicillium oxalicum originally isolated from a low temperature environment of Leh (Ladakh), India and the other one is mesophilic Penicillium citrinum (KR150257) isolated from Lucknow (Uttar Pradesh), India. The psychrotolerant P. oxalicum can grow at low temperature (4°C) and shows optimum growth at 15°C, while the mesophilic P. citrinum exhibits optimum growth temperature at 35°C. The study of secondary metabolites produced by both Penicillium strains, studied by UV-Visible Spectroscopy, GC-MS, confirmed the presence of alkaloids, mycotoxins, antibiotics, hydrocarbons and fatty acids. The maximum production of alkaloids by cold tolerant Penicillium oxalicum is detected under temperature stress (35°C). On the other hand, mesophilic Penicillium citrinum produced maximum alkaloids with different absorption characteristics at 35°C. The GC-MS analysis of secondary metabolites revealed the presence of number of unique biochemical compounds in both the P. oxalicum and P. citrinum strains grown under temperature stress conditions (35°C and 4°C, respectively). The common biochemical in the secondary metabolites produced by both the Penicillium strains grown under temperature stress condition are 3-dodecene, 2-dodecanol and 1-hexadecanol, eicosane, dibutyl, phthalate, 9-hexacosene, propanoic acid, 2-(aminooxy). The three-unique biochemical produced by P. oxalicum grown at low temperature (4°C) are 4(1H) Quinazolinone, 1,4,8-Metheno-1H-cyclopent [f] azulene, 3a, 4, 4a, 7, 7a, 8, 9, 9a-octahydro and 6-Quinazolinol. The five-unique biochemical produced by P. oxalicum at high temperature (35°C) are 2-Methyl-2-propylmethylphospho nofluoridate, Pyridine, 2[(1,1dimethylethyl) thio, 4(1H) Pyrimidinone,6-amino-2-methyl-5-nitroso, 4(3H) Quinolinone and Phthalic acid, di(2-propylpentyl). The seven unique biochemical produced by P. citrinum at low temperature (4°C) are Cyclohexanone, 4-ethyl-4-methyl-3-(1-methylethyl)-,trans-, 3-Methyl-1,4diazabicyclo[4.3.0]nonan-2,5- dione, N-acetyl, Glycyl-L-proline, Pyrrolo [1,2-a]pyrazine-1,4-dione,hexahydro-3-(2-methylpropyl)-, 2,2-Dimethylpropyl 2,2-dimethyl-propanesulfinyl sulfone, 11,14-Eicosadienoic acid, methyl ester. The unique derivative of β-lactam antibiotic produced by the P. citrinum at 35°C is 2,4-Azetidinedione,3,3-diethyl-1-methyl.

Evaluation of a mycotoxin adsorbent in swine diets containing barley naturally contaminated with Fusarium mycotoxins

Summary Background: contamination of barley with Fusarium mycotoxins causes significant economic losses for pork producers, and alleviation with mycotoxin sequestering agents has proven inconsistent. Objective: to evaluate a yeast cell wall product in preventing adverse effects of Fusarium mycotoxins on growth performance, blood characteristic, and nutrient digestibility in gilts fed diets containing barley naturally contaminated with Fusarium mycotoxins. Methods: positive and negative controls of corn-soybean meal diets containing 20% control and contaminated barley with Fusarium mycotoxins, respectively, were prepared. Two additional diets were prepared by adding 0.2 or 0.4% of a yeast cell wall product to the negative control diet. The experimental diets were fed to pigs with 61.7 Kg initial body weight for 2 weeks. Results: pigs fed the negative control diet gained less than those fed the positive control diet (p Conclusion: addition of the yeast cell wall product to negative control diets failed to ameliorate the adverse effects of dietary Fusarium mycotoxin on growth performance. Keywords: deoxynivalenol, digestion, growth, yeast cell wall. Resumen Antecedentes: la contaminacion de la cebada con micotoxinas de Fusarium causa importantes perdidas economicas para los productores de carne de cerdo, pero adsorbentes de micotoxinas para prevenir los efectos perjudiciales de las micotoxinas no dieron resultados consistentes. Objetivo: evaluar el producto de la pared celular de la levadura en la prevencion de los efectos adversos de las micotoxinas de Fusarium sobre el crecimiento, caracteristicas de la sangre, y la digestibilidad de nutrientes en cerdas jovenes alimentadas con dietas que contienen cebada naturalmente contaminada con micotoxinas de Fusarium . Metodos: se prepararon las dietas a base de harina de maiz-soja de control positivo y negativo contienen 20% de control y cebada contaminados con micotoxinas de Fusarium , respectivamente. Adicionalmente se prepararon 2 dietas con productos de la pared celular de levadura de 0,2 o 0,4% a la dieta de control negativo. Fueron alimentados con las dietas experimentales cerdos con un peso corporal inicial de 61,7 Kg durante 2 semanas. Resultados: los cerdos alimentados con la dieta control negativo ganaron menos que aquellos alimentados con la dieta control positivo (p Fusarium sobre el crecimiento. Palabras clave: crecimiento, deoxinivalenol, digestion, pared celular de levadura. Resumo Antecedentes: a contaminacao da cevada com a micotoxinas Fusarium causa perdas economicas significativas para os produtores de suinos, porem os adsorventes de micotoxinas que evitam efeitos prejudiciais de micotoxinas nao deram resultados consistentes. Objetivo: avaliar o produto da parede celular das leveduras para prevenir efeitos adversos da micotoxinas Fusarium no desempenho do crescimento, inchaco da vulva, caracteristica do sangue, digestibilidade dos nutrientes em porcas jovens que sao alimentadas com dietas contendo a cevada naturalmente contaminada com micotoxinas do Fusarium . Metodos: foram preparadas dietas de controle positivo e negativo a base de milho e soja, contendo 20% do controle e cevada contaminada com micotoxinas Fusarium , respectivamente. Duas dietas adicionais foram preparadas complementando com 0,2 ou 0,4% o produto da parede celular das leveduras a dieta do controle negativo. As dietas experimentais foram fornecidas aos suinos com peso corporal inicial de 61,7 Kg por 2 semanas. Resultados: os suinos alimentados com a dieta do controle negativo ganharam menos peso do que aqueles alimentados com a dieta do controle positivo (p Conclusao: a complementacao do produto da parede celular das leveduras nas dietas de controle negativo nao conseguiu melhorar o efeito adverso das micotoxinas Fusarium e no desempenho de crescimento. Palavras chave: crescimento, desoxinivalenol, digestao, parede celular das leveduras.

TRICHOTHECENE GENOTYPES OF FUSARIUM GRAMINEARUM SPECIES COMPLEX AND F. CROOKWELLENSE ISOLATES FROM MEXICAN CEREALS

Four of the world’s most important crops, wheat, barley, rice and maize, in addition to other small grains are susceptible to Fusarium graminearum species complex (FGSC), the most important causal agent of Fusarium head blight (FHB). The major threat from this species complex comes from trichothecene mycotoxins such as deoxynivalenol (DON) and nivalenol (NIV) and their acetylated derivatives, including 3-acetyldeoxynivalenol (3-ADON), 15- acetyldeoxynivalenol (15-ADON), and 4-acetylnivalenol (4-ANIV). Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assays are being utilized to quickly identify type B trichothecene genotypes in populations of head blight causing Fusaria. In the current study, 388 isolates collected from different locations in 6 Mexican states between 1995 and 2013 were analyzed by chemotype and sub-chemotype specific markers. It was found that the disease has been predominantly caused by FGSC, while F. crookwellense co-presented as FHB causal agent in Mexico. Both DON and NIV trichothecene genotypes were identified in isolates belonging to FGSC, with the DON genotype predominating. Furthermore, all DON isolates were shown to be the 15- ADON genotype and no 3-ADON genotype was identified. This was the first detailed study on the trichothecene genotypes of Mexican toxigenic Fusarium strains on large scale; wherein we report for the first time the occurrence of FGSC isolates belonging to NIV trichothecene genotype in Mexico.

Unraveling the Tritrophic interactions between fruit host-pathogen-antagonist in the post-harvest environment

Fruits and vegetables post-harvest losses due to the attack of several fungal pathogens can reach levels of up to 50% depending on the commodity. Besides the economic losses, some of these fungi may represent a potential health risk because of mycotoxin production. To control post-harvest diseases of fruits, synthetic fungicides, when permitted, are the primary means used. However, the emergence of fungicide-resistant strains and the willingness to use safer and eco- friendly treatments, have generated interest in the development of alternative non-chemical methods to reduce post-harvest losses. Biological control using microbial antagonists has emerged as one of the most promising alternatives to fungicides, either alone or as part of an integrated pest management. The antagonistic activity of biocontrol agents has been widely demonstrated, however the mechanisms of action of most biocontrol agents of post-harvest diseases has not yet been fully understood which is important to know for a successful implementation of post-harvest biocontrol technology. Therefore a part of my PhD focused on this aspect; we have successfully cloned, expressed in P. pastoris and confirmed the involve- ment of a novel endochitinase gene MfChi and the protease gene ALP5 in the biocontrol activity of the antagonistic yeasts Metschnikowia fructicola AP47 and Aureobasidium pullulans PL5 successively. Our work proved that the alkaline serine protease ALP5 and the endochitinase MfChi could be developed as post-harvest treatments with antimicrobial activity for fruits undergoing a short shelf life to control Botrytis cinerea, Monilinia fructicola and Monilinia laxa on pome and stone fruits. Moreover, besides developing biocontrol agents as alternative approaches to chemicals to control the pathogens, we should also be familiar with the decaying agents, such as their nature and the molecular basis of the infection. Due to recent technological advances, sequencing has revolutionized biological research and has become the forefront of bio- logical experimentation in the last decade. Therefore, we have sequenced for the first time Penicillium griseofulvum PG3 which is associated with blue mould decay, the most important post-harvest disease of pome fruit worldwide. The fungal pathogen has the ability to simultaneously produce both detrimental and beneficial Secondary Metabolites (SM). Our work aimed to analyse some important SM clusters present in the studied strain in order to gain insight into SM synthesis in P. griseofulvum. Genome-wide analysis of PG3 genes revealed a complete putative gene cluster for patulin biosynthesis, and partial griseofulvin and roquefortine C clusters. Besides the bioinformatics analysis of these gene clusters, we quantified the SM production in vitro and during disease development on apple. Furthermore, the SM detected in infected apple were examined by studying the expression kinetics of their key genes under controlled conditions. In addition, we found additional SM clusters in PG3, including those potentially responsible for the synthesis of penicillin and cyclopiazonic acid. These findings provide relevant information to understand the molecular basis of SM biosynthesis in P. griseofulvum and this resource will allow further research directed to the overexpression or blocking of specific SM synthesis, to assess its potential in terms of biotechnological applications for beneficial SM, such as griseofulvin.

Mycotoxins in milk for human nutrition: cow, sheep and human breast milk.

Mycotoxins are produced pre harvest by some molds and secreted into various food items of plant origin, such cereals, vegetables, spices, coffee and nuts. If the food items are not stored under adequate conditions, a post harvest contamination may also occur. Animals and humans take them up by food items and some of them are stored and accumulated in different tissues and organs, so that food of animal origin may be contaminated, too. Especially aflatoxin and ochratoxin are secreted into milk by consumers of contaminated food. Since milk represents the major food source of newborns and infants, they are notably exposed to these mycotoxins. This health risk for these individuals may be of particular importance, because their ability to metabolize these fungal toxic agents is not yet fully developed at this stage.

Mycotoxins

Mycotoxins

Micotoxinas en harinas derivadas de trigo y soja detectadas por prueba de Elisa

Resumen: El objetivo de este trabajo fue evaluar la presencia de micotoxinas en las harinas derivadas de trigo y soja expuestos a la infección de Fusarium graminearum y detectadas por prueba de Elisa. La contaminación fue evaluada durante 2010 y 2012, en condiciones de invernadero, a través de inoculaciones artificiales, y en lotes de producción en campo, expuestos a infecciones naturales. Se utilizaron 26 muestras de harinas derivadas de cariopsis de trigo y semillas de soja. La detección de micotoxinas deoxinivalenol y zearalenona se realizó por kit de Elisa. En harinas de trigo de diversos ambientes, se detectaron ambas micotoxinas - deoxinivalenol y zearalenona -, mientras que en harinas de soja sólo se detectó zearalenona. Las concentraciones de esas micotoxinas observadas en las harinas no son admisibles para el consumo humano y animal. El kit de Elisa constituyó una herramienta biotecnológica efectiva para la detección de la contaminación predominante de zearalenona, producida por F. graminearum, en harinas de trigo y soja de diferentes ambientes semicontrolados y naturales.