Mycotoxins In Grain Research Articles

Major heretofore intractable biotic constraints to African food security that may be amenable to novel biotechnological solutions

The input costs of pesticides to control biotic constraints are often prohibitive to the subsistence farmers of Africa and seed based solutions to biotic stresses are more appropriate. Plant breeding has been highly successful in dealing with many pest problems in Africa, especially diseases, but is limited to the genes available within the crop genome. Years of breeding and studying cultural practices have not always been successful in alleviating many problems that biotechnology may be able to solve. We pinpoint the major intractable regional problems as: (1) weeds: parasitic weeds ( Striga and Orobanche spp.) throughout Africa; grass weeds of wheat ( Bromus and Lolium) intractable to herbicides in North Africa; (2) insect and diseases: stem borers and post-harvest grain weevils in sub-Saharan Africa; Bemesia tabaci (white fly) as the vector of the tomato leaf curl virus complex on vegetable crops in North Africa; and (3) the mycotoxins: fumonisins and aflatoxins in stored grains. Abiotic stresses may exacerbate many of these problems, and biotechnological alleviations of abiotic stress could partially allay some predicaments. Some of these constraints are already under study using biotechnological procedures, but others may require longer-term research and development to alleviate the problems. Despite the huge impacts of post-harvest weevils and of mycotoxins in grains, these issues had not been given high priority in national biotechnological programs, possibly due to a lack of knowledge of their immensity. The need for public sector involvement is accentuated for cases where immediate profits are not perceived (e.g. lowering mycotoxin levels in farmer utilized grain, which does not increase yield) but where the public weal will gain, and will be invaluable, especially where the private sector supplies genes already isolated.

Cultivar and crop management influences on fusarium head blight and mycotoxins in spring wheat (Triticum aestivum) in New Zealand

Cultivar and crop management influences on fusarium head blight (FHB) of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) were investigated in cultivar field trials and commercial wheat crops in the North Island of New Zealand over two growing seasons. There were consistent differences between cultivars in their susceptibility to FHB. The Chinese wheat ‘Nanjing’ had the lowest level of FHB, mycotoxins, and Fusarium infection in grain. Although no New Zealand cultivars approached an equivalent level of resistance, FHB in some cultivars was low in most situations, and these cultivars had a useful level of resistance. FHB and mycotoxin levels varied widely between crops surveyed. Two Fusarium mycotoxins, deoxynivalenol (DON) and nivalenol (NIV), were detected in grain samples from crops and trials. Overall, DON levels were higher than NIV in crops in both years. FHB incidence and levels of Fusarium infection and mycotoxins in grain were closely related in samples from a particular crop, but the relationships were much less apparent between crops. F. graminearum predominated in grain samples, although F. avenaceum, F. culmorum, and F. poae were also common. Highest levels of F. graminearum were recorded in grain samples from crops that followed maize, whereas F. avenaceum and F. poae were more common in samples from crops that did not follow maize.

Sampling plan for the analysis of aflatoxin in peanuts and corn: an update

The aim of this paper was to update the sampling plan for analysis of mycotoxins in grains, formerly published by the author. The proposed alterations were based on the acquired experience on its application and on FAO recommendations. This update restricts the scope of the former plan and establishes a sampling plan for analysis of aflatoxin in peanuts and corn, by means of modified formulas, the minimum number of sacks or points (when in bulk) from which incremental samples should be drawn to make a bulk sample. Fractional exponents (square roots) of the formulas proportionally decrease the number of sacks/points to be sampled as the lot size increases. Operating Characteristic (OC) curves developed for in-shell and shelled peanuts and corn as well as trend curves of the coefficient variation for different sample sizes (weights) are presented.

Detection and quantification of ochratoxin A and deoxynivalenol in barley grains by GC-MS and electronic nose

Mycotoxin contamination of cereal grains can be detected and quantified using complex extraction procedures and analytical techniques. Normally, the grain odour, i.e. the presence of non-grain volatile metabolites, is used for quality classification of grain. We have investigated the possibility of using fungal volatile metabolites as indicators of mycotoxins in grain. Ten barley samples with normal odour, and 30 with some kind of off-odour were selected from Swedish granaries. The samples were evaluated with regard to moisture content, fungal contamination, ergosterol content, and levels of ochratoxin A (OA) and deoxynivalenol (DON). Volatile compounds were also analysed using both an electronic nose and gas chromatography combined with mass spectrometry (GC-MS). Samples with normal odour had no detectable ochratoxin A and average DON contents of 16 μg kg −1 (range 0–80), while samples with off-odour had average OA contents of 76 μg kg −1 (range 0–934) and DON contents of 69 μg kg −1 (range 0–857). Data were evaluated by multivariate data analysis using projection methods such as principal component analysis (PCA) and partial least squares (PLS). The results show that it was possible to classify the OA level as below or above the maximum limit of 5 μg kg −1 cereal grain established by the Swedish National Food Administration, and that the DON level could be estimated using PLS. Samples with OA levels below 5 μg kg −1 had higher concentration of aldehydes (nonanal, 2-hexenal) and alcohols (1-penten-3-ol, 1-octanol). Samples with OA levels above 5 μg kg −1 had higher concentrations of ketones (2-hexanone, 3-octanone). The GC-MS system predicted OA concentrations with a higher accuracy than the electronic nose, since the GC-MS misclassified only 3 of 37 samples and the electronic nose 7 of 37 samples. No correlation was found between odour and OA level, as samples with pronounced or strong off-odours had OA levels both below and above 5 μg kg −1. We were able to predict DON levels in the naturally contaminated barley samples using the volatile compounds detected and quantified by either GC-MS or the electronic nose. Pentane, methylpyrazine, 3-pentanone, 3-octene-2-ol and isooctylacetate showed a positive correlation with DON, while ethylhexanol, pentadecane, toluene, 1-octanol, 1-nonanol, and 1-heptanol showed a negative correlation with DON. The root mean square error of estimation values for prediction of DON based on GC-MS and electronic nose data were 16 and 25 μg kg −1, respectively.

Development of rapid assays for the detection of fungi and mycotoxins.

The detection of fungi and the analysis of mycotoxins in grain and other commodities traditionally require considerable time, expertise and often, sophisticated equipment. This leads to expensive and time-consuming methods, which do not lend themselves for ‘real-time’ measurement or ‘field’ type applications. To overcome these problems, work is in progress to develop antibodies, which can be incorporated into immunoassays and other rapid formats, for the specific and general detection of fungi and some of their associated mycotoxins. This paper describes the development of a ‘general mould’ reagent set, based on several monoclonal antibodies raised towards groups of serologically related fungi, including many which are potentially toxigenic, and also the development of a single monoclonal to the fungal membrane lipid, ergosterol. Applications for assays incorporating these antibodies, as well as their suitability for use in lateral flow devices for ‘on-site’ detection of fungi and mycotoxins, are discussed

Natural control of fungi and mycotoxin in grains - means of reducing human and and animal contamination

Natural control of fungi and mycotoxin in grains - means of reducing human and and animal contamination

Effect of processing on Fusarium mycotoxins.

Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites produced by a wide variety of fungal species that contaminate food or feed. Fumonisins (FUM), deoxynivalenol (DON) and zearalenone (ZEN) are examples of common mycotoxins in grains that have been shown to affect human and/or animal health. Physical, chemical and biological methods have been used for decontaminating grains containing these toxins. Some treatments reduce the concentration of mycotoxins while others are ineffective. For example, removal of damaged grain by density segregation can reduce DON and ZEN concentrations in corn and wheat. In contrast, thermal processing is usually ineffective for reducing the FUM and ZEN content of foods. More work is needed to identify effective methods for detoxifying mycotoxin contaminated food.

Risk Assessment of Fumonisins Produced by Fusarium moniliforme in Corn

Four important toxigenic species of fungi are associated with corn (Zea mays) intended for human and animal consumption in South Africa, ie Aspergillus flavus, Diplodia maydis, Fusarium graminearum, and Fusarium moniliforme. Com infected by these fungi causes outbreaks of the following mycotoxicoses in animals: aflatoxicosis, diplodiosis, hyperestrogenism and leukoencephalomalacia. The five most important mycotoxins known to occur naturally in corn in South Africa are aflatoxins, deoxynivalenol, nivalenol, zearalenone and fumonisins. The following mycotoxins in foods have been implicated in human diseases in South Africa: aflatoxins in acute toxic hepatitis, kwashiorkor and liver cancer and fumonisins in oesophageal cancer. Tolerance levels of mycotoxins in grain are essential to protect human health and to assess grain quality from the viewpoint of mycotoxin contamination. Tolerance levels are established by means of risk assessment studies. Risk assessment of mycotoxins in grains has two major components, ie exposure assessment and hazard assessment. Exposure is calculated from naturally occurring levels of a mycotoxin in foodstuffs and food intake and expressed as the Probable Daily Intake (PDI). Hazard is calculated from toxicological studies in experimental animals by dividing the No Observed Effect Level (NOEL) by a Safety Factor (ranging from 100 to 5000) and expressed as the Tolerable Daily Intake (TDI). Several estimates of PDI and TDI values of fumonisins in corn are compared and a tolerance level of 100 to 200 μg/kg for fumonisins in corn intended for human consumption is suggested. However, more work remains to be done to establish scientifically sound and economically reasonable tolerance levels for fumonisins in corn.

Gestational age, birth weight, and perinatal death among births to Norwegian farmers, 1967-1991.

Perinatal health was investigated by linkage with the Medical Birth Registry of Norway for 192,417 births that took place between 1967 and 1991 among parents identified as farm holders in Norwegian agricultural censuses in 1969-1989. In a comparison with 61,351 births to nonfarmers in agricultural municipalities, farmers' births had an advantageous distribution of gestational ages and birth weights. Perinatal mortality was similar in the two groups, but the proportion of late-term abortions (gestational weeks 16-27) was higher among farmers' birth (odds ratio (OR) = 1.9, 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.6-2.3). Exposure indicators were classified on the basis of information given in the agricultural censuses and climate data for the grain harvest seasons of 1966-1991. The main hypotheses were that perinatal death is associated with parental exposure to pesticides. Toxoplasma contracted from infected sheep or pigs, or mycotoxins found in grain farming. There was no convincing evidence that perinatal death is associated with use of pesticides, sheep farming, or pig farming. The increase in late-term abortion among the farmers could to some extent be attributed to an excess of midpregnancy (weeks 21-24) deliveries among grain farmers; grain farmers had 132 deliveries at this time in pregnancy (2.8 per 1,000 pregnancies), while the nongrain farmers had 236 deliveries in midpregnancy (1.8 per 1,000). The authors found odds ratios (95% CI) that indicated that grain farming risk was higher after the harvest (1.8, 1.1-2.8), in seasons with a poor quality harvest (2.4, 1.5-3.8), and in pregnancies with multiple births (3.8, 1.7-8.2). These results support the hypothesis that occupational exposure to mycotoxins in grain induces labor at an early stage of pregnancy.

Biological fate of fumonisin B1 in food-producing animals.

The presence of mycotoxins in grains and feedstuffs causes not only animal health problems, but also a valid concern about the transmission of potentially toxic residues into animal-derived products intended for human consumption. In a series of studies at Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, we investigated the biological fate of fumonisin B1 (FB1) in several food-producing animals (grower pigs, laying hens, dairy cattle), as well as monitored various parameters for evidence of toxicity in these species. In several experiments involving either single-dose protocols (iv, po) or longer-term feeding trials, the pharmacokinetic profiles of FB1 (purity > 95%) in these species were determined, including tissue accumulation and transmission of residues. Toxicological (and economical) implications such as performance (feed consumption, growth), productivity, and carcass quality were also measured when appropriate.

Book reviews

The hypersensitive reaction in plants to pathogens: a resistance phenomenon. Edited by R. N. Goodman and A. J. Novacky. Published in 1994 by APS Press, St Paul, Minnesota, United States. 256p., softcover. ISBN 0–89054–165–5. Price: US$39.00 (United States); US$49.00 (elsewhere). Mycotoxins in grain: compounds other than aflatoxin. Edited by J. David Miller and Locksley Trenholm. Published in 1994 by Eagen Press, St Paul, Minnesota, United States. 552 p., hardcover. ISBN 0–9624407–5‐2. Price: US$124.00 (plus US$2.00 postage) (United States); US$134.00 (incl. p. & p.) (elsewhere). Intellectual property rights: protection of plant materials. Edited by P. Stephen Baenziger, Roger A. Kleese, and Robert F. Barnes. Published in 1993 by the Crop Science Society of America, American Society for Horticultural Science, American Society of Agronomy, Soil Science Society of America, and U.S. Department of Agriculture‐Science and Education, Madison, WI 53711, United States. 187 p., softcover. ISBN 0–89118–537–2. Price: US$22.00 (incl. p. & p.).

Book reviews

Books review in this article:The Technology of Extrusion Cooking. Edited by N.D. FrameMeasurement of Food Preferences. Edited by H.J. McFie and D.M.H. ThomsonNutrition in the ‘90s: Current Controversies and Analysis. Volume 2. Edited by Frank N. Kotsonis and Maureen A. MackeySafety and Nutritional Adequacy of Irradiated Food. By the World Health OrganizationRancidity in Foods, 3rd edn. Edited by J.C. Allen and R.J. HamiltonAdvanced Dairy Chemistry. Volume 2: Lipids. 2nd edn. Edited by P.F. FoxMinimally Processed Refrigerated Fruits and Vegetables. Edited by Robert C. WileyMaillard Reactions in Chemistry, Food, and Health. Edited by T.P. Labuza et al.Human Medicinal Agents from Plants. Edited by A. Douglas Kinghorn and Manuel F. BalandrinConcentrated and Dried Dairy Products. By Marijana Carić.Food Packaging and Preservation. Edited by M. Mathlouthi.Agricultural Economics and Agribusiness. By Gail L. Cramer and Clarence W. Jensen.Viral Infections of the Gastrointestinal Tract. 2nd Edn. Edited by Albert Z. KapikianSynergy. Edited by Gordon G. Birch and Geoffrey Campbell‐PlattDietary Fibre and Related Substances. By I.T. Johnson and D.A.T. SouthgateThe Lipid Handbook. 2nd Edn. Edited by Frank D. Gunstone, John L. Harwood and Fred B. PadleyFunctional Foods: Designer Foods, Pharmafoods, Nutraceuticals. Edited by Israel GoldbergIntroduction to Food Toxicology. By Takayuki Shibamoto and Leonard F. BjeldanesPhospholipid Handbook. Edited by Gregor CevcShelf Life Evaluation of Foods. Edited by C.M.D. Man and A.A. JonesThe Canning of Fish and Meat. Edited by R.J. Footitt and A.S. LewisIntegrated Solid Waste Management. By P.R. White, M. Franke and P. HindleFermented Meats. Edited by G. Campbell‐Platt and P.E. CookCurrent Good Manufacturing Practices/Food Plant Sanitation. 2nd Edn. By Wilbur A. GouldMycotoxins in Grain: Compounds Other than Aflatoxin. Edited by J.D. Miller and H.L. TrenholmBiochemistry of Milk Products. Edited by A.T. Andrews and J. VarleyFood Dehydration: A Dictionary and Guide. By J.G. Brennan

Mycotoxin in grain

Mycotoxin in grain

Mycotoxins in grain

Mycotoxins in grain

Levels of five mycotoxins in grains harvested in Atlantic Canada as measured by high performance liquid chromatography.

An analytical protocol using high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) was used to analyze samples of spring wheat, winter wheat, 2-row barley, and 6-row barley over a period of three years for the presence of five mycotoxins. These included deoxynivalenol, zearalenone, T-2 toxin, HT-2 toxin, and diacetoxyscirpenol. The protocol employed a single extraction step using acetonitrile-water and two cleanup procedures. One utilized a solid-phase extraction column and the other a charcoal-alumina column. Detection limits ranged from 0.02 to 0.15 micrograms of mycotoxin g-1 grain. Little T-2 toxin, HT-2 toxin, or diacetoxyscirpenol was found in the samples. Deoxynivalenol was detected in 53 to 62% of the samples tested and zearalenone in 25-29% of the samples. Several enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays were used for comparison purposes with deoxynivalenol, zearalenone, and T-2 toxin. These kits provided reliable qualitative, but not quantitative, data.

Growth of Moulds and Production of Mycotoxins in Wheat during Drying and Storage

Abstract Studies were carried out on the growth of mould and the production of mycotoxins in grain during drying and storage. Various amounts of forced ambient air, 800, 600, 400, 200 and 0 m3 (air)/(hour ton), were used to dry wheat, which contained 32% moisture at harvest. Samples for mycological examination and determination of mycotoxins and moisture content were taken weekly. At harvest the mould flora consisted of various field fungi with less than 10% Fusarium spp. An increasing proportion of Aspergillius and Penicillium spp. were recorded in the bins at 0 and 200 m3 (air)/h t. The mycotoxin analysis indicated that the Fusarium spp. were also metabolically active until at least five weeks after the grain was put into the store room. The concentration of deoxynivalenol (DON) reached about 10 mg/kg after three weeks in the bins with no air flow, and about 2 mg/kg in the bins at 200 m3 (air)/h t. The zearalenone concentration also increased considerably, to about 5 mg/kg, in the bins with no air flow....

Food standards and the control of chemicals in foods — their impact on international trade: C.W. McMillan reports to the FAO/WHO conference on Food Standards, Chemicals in Food and Food Trade, Rome, Italy, 18–27 March 1991

The establishment of international standards for chemicals in foodstuffs is essential if trade disputes are to be avoided. The banning of a particular chemical by an individual country will complicate and confuse international trade, and variations in food quality standards between exporting and importing countries leads to rejection of imports and the possibility of sales to third countries with less stringent controls. The Codex Alimentarius Commission has played a vital role in the control of contaminants such as pesticides, heavy metals, food additives, microbiological contamination and antibiotic residues, and mycotoxins in grains, and this role needs to be extended in the future to embrace genetically engineered products. The Commission's aims are to harmonize and co-ordinate acceptance of international food standards, to protect consumers and to ensure fair food trade practices internationally. Its work has allowed the minization of technical barriers to trade through the control of chemicals in foods.

Multitoxin screening method for Fusarium mycotoxins in grains

ADVERTISEMENT RETURN TO ISSUEPREVArticleNEXTMultitoxin screening method for Fusarium mycotoxins in grainsDenis R. Lauren and Michael P. AgnewCite this: J. Agric. Food Chem. 1991, 39, 3, 502–507Publication Date (Print):March 1, 1991Publication History Published online1 May 2002Published inissue 1 March 1991https://doi.org/10.1021/jf00003a014RIGHTS & PERMISSIONSArticle Views137Altmetric-Citations39LEARN ABOUT THESE METRICSArticle Views are the COUNTER-compliant sum of full text article downloads since November 2008 (both PDF and HTML) across all institutions and individuals. These metrics are regularly updated to reflect usage leading up to the last few days.Citations are the number of other articles citing this article, calculated by Crossref and updated daily. Find more information about Crossref citation counts.The Altmetric Attention Score is a quantitative measure of the attention that a research article has received online. Clicking on the donut icon will load a page at altmetric.com with additional details about the score and the social media presence for the given article. Find more information on the Altmetric Attention Score and how the score is calculated. Share Add toView InAdd Full Text with ReferenceAdd Description ExportRISCitationCitation and abstractCitation and referencesMore Options Share onFacebookTwitterWechatLinked InReddit PDF (760 KB) Get e-Alerts Get e-Alerts

A practical guide to the prevention of Fusarium mycotoxins in grain and animal feedstuffs.

The guidelines in this report focus on prevention of mycotoxin contamination associated with plant and animal production in eastern Canada. The topics covered include a brief description of the Fusarium mycotoxins of particular concern in eastern Canada, the life cycle of Fusarium and recommendations for reducing fungal infection and mycotoxin production in grain crops and animal feed. The presence of complex mixtures of toxins, as well as research on detoxification and mycotoxin residues in animal food products are discussed. For those involved in advising producers and millers on occupational hazards associated with mycotoxins, guidelines on the safe handling of contaminated grain are also included. The review provides background information for scientists and technical personnel advising grain and animal producers on how to reduce mycotoxin problems associated with F. graminearum contamination of grain, especially wheat and corn. It may be necessary to revise the recommendations to suit different agricultural regions or different plant and animal production systems.

Determination of mycotoxins in grain by high-performance liquid chromatography and thermospray liquid chromatography—mass spectometry

An high-performance liquid chromatographic method is described for determination of deoxynivalenol, patulin, diacetoxyscirpenol, HT-2-toxin, T-2-toxin, zearalenone and ochratoxin A using a reversed-phase column and a diode-array detector. The extraction and purification steps and optimum chromatographic conditions are described.. Detection limits and recoveries from spiked wheat samples were invesigated. The combination of the high-performance liquid chromatographic system described together with a modern thermospray quadrupole mass spectrometer is a very specific and sensitive method for analyzing a wide range of mycotoxins in biological samples.