Mycotoxin Levels Research Articles

Assessment of mycotoxins in cornflakes marketed in Lebanon

Cornflakes are a popular and convenient breakfast cereal made from corn and widely consumed worldwide, including in Lebanon. However, they are susceptible to mycotoxin contamination, which can have harmful effects on human health. Our study evaluated the occurrence of five mycotoxins (AFB1, OTA, FUM, ZEA, DON) levels in packed cornflakes marketed in Lebanon. A market screening identified 35 different cornflake stock-keeping units (SKU) in the Lebanese market, originating from 10 different brands and having different tastes and shapes. SKUs were collected and tested for five mycotoxins in triplicates using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay technique. The results showed the presence of the five mycotoxins in the samples. The average levels of AFB1, OTA, ZEA and FUM among positive samples (above limit of detection) were 1.58, 1.2, 15.1 and 774.1 μg/kg, respectively, and were below the EU limits. On the other hand, the average level of DON was 1206.7 μg/kg, exceeding the EU limit. Furthermore, out of the positive samples, 60%, 17%, 9%, 14%, and 6% exceeded the EU limits for DON, OTA, AFB1, FUM, and ZEA, respectively. Notably, SKUs made in Lebanon had significantly (p < 0.05) higher levels of AFB1 and FUM. The packing size of the cornflakes had no significant (p > 0.05) effect on the levels of the five mycotoxins detected in the samples. AFB1, FUM and ZEA levels differed significantly among SKUs (p > 0.05). Considering these findings, further studies should be conducted to assess the exposure to mycotoxins from the consumption of cornflakes in Lebanon, especially among children.

Assessing the Effect of Flour (White or Whole-Grain) and Process (Direct or Par-Baked) on the Mycotoxin Content of Bread in Spain.

Bread is the staple food in many parts of the world. Like other foods, bread can contain mycotoxins resulting from microbial development throughout the supply chain (from field to table). In this study, baguette-style bread from small artisanal bakeries (direct) and supermarkets (par-baked loaves made by large companies) in Castile and Leon (Spain) was analyzed. Both white and whole-grain breads were collected from all retail outlets. The mycotoxins analyzed included deoxynivalenol (DON), ochratoxin (OTA), and aflatoxin B1 and B2 (AFB1, AFB2). All of the bread samples studied had mycotoxin levels below the maximum limits established by legislation. The presence of DON was higher than that of OTA, and AFB1 and AFB2 could not be quantified. Industrial breads had higher levels of DON and OTA (only in the whole-grain breads) compared to artisanal breads. However, no significant differences were found between white and industrial breads beyond those mentioned above. These results demonstrate that the established control chains ensure low mycotoxin content in bread of this type.

Evaluation of ELISA and immunoaffinity fluorometric analytical tools of four mycotoxins in various food categories

Mycotoxins (MTs) are secondary toxic metabolites that can contaminate food, impacting quality and safety, leading to various negative health effects and serious pathological consequences conferring urgent need to evaluate and validate the currently standard methods used in their analysis. Therefore, this study was aimed to validate ELISA and VICAM immunoaffinity fluorometric, the two common methods used to monitor the level of MTs according to the Egyptian Organization for Standardization and Quality Control. A total of 246 food samples were collected and tested for Aflatoxins (196 samples), Ochratoxin A (139), Zearalenone (70), and Deoxynivalenol (100) using both analytical methods. Results showed that aflatoxins exceeded limits in 42.9, 100, and 13.3% of oily seeds, dried fruits, and chili and spices, respectively. For ochratoxin A, 3.9% of Gramineae and 8% of spices and chili (locally sourced) exceeded the limits, while 17.6% of imported pasta and noodles exceeded the limits for deoxynivalenol. Significant differences for the aflatoxins and ochratoxin A detection among different categories of chocolate, dried fruits, and oily seeds (p-value < 0.05). No zearalenone contamination was detected in the exported, imported, and locally sourced categories. No deoxynivalenol contamination was detected in the tested Gramineae category. In contrast, for pasta and noodles, the imported samples exhibited the highest contamination rate (above the upper limit of 750 µg/kg) with 17.6% of the samples testing positive for deoxynivalenol with no significant difference among different sample categories of Gramineae, pasta, and noodles (p-value > 0.05). In conclusion, our study found no significant differences between the ELISA and immunoaffinity fluorometric analysis in the detection of the respective MTs in various food categories and therefore, they can substitute each other whenever necessary. However, significant differences were observed among different food categories, particularly the local and imported ones, highlighting the urgent need for strict and appropriate control measures to minimize the risk of MTs adverse effects.

202 Evaluation of Increasing Levels of Mycotoxin-Containing Corn Fines fed to Nursery Pigs on Growth Performance

Abstract The effects of feeding corn fines (screenings) containing mycotoxin levels at greater than the FDA cautionary levels were evaluated using crossbred pigs [n = 150, 90 barrows and 60 gilts; mean initial body weight (BW) = 6.42 ± 0.06 kg; n =] that were blocked by BW and sex, randomly allotted within block to 6 dietary treatments, and housed 5 pigs/pen resulting in a total of 5 replicates. The corn fines used in this study contained mycotoxin levels that were analyzed to be 20,334 ppb total fumonisin, 1,499 ppb zearalenone, and 5,075 ppb total deoxynivalenol. The corn fines were added into a corn-soybean meal basal diet at 0, 20, 40, and 60% total dietary corn fines (Diets 1-4, respectively). Diet 5 was created by adding 40 ppm of boron (as sodium tetraborate decahydrate, 11.34% B) to Diet 4. Diet 6 was created by adding 0.25% Biofix Plus with FUMzyme (DSM Nutritional Products, Parsippany, NJ) to Diet 4. Dietary treatments were fed for a total of 6 weeks; thereafter, all pigs received a common corn-soybean meal basal diet without fines for about 2 weeks. Data were analyzed by ANOVA using the GLM procedure of SAS with the pen being the experimental unit. Orthogonal polynomial contrasts were used to determine linear and quadratic effects with increasing dietary levels of corn fines in Diets 1-4 as well as preplanned single degree of freedom comparisons. Increasing fines linearly decreased ADG during week 1-6 (P = 0.03), as well as linearly decreased gain/feed ratio during week 1-6 (P = 0.04; Table 1). Comparing Diets 4 and 5 to Diet 1 during week 1-6, there was a decrease in ADG and gain/feed ratio (P &amp;lt; 0.05) but no effect on ADFI (P &amp;gt; 0.05); subsequently, the difference in Diets 4 and 5 compared with Diet 1 was no longer significant for week 1-8. Comparing Diet 6 to Diets 1 and 4 during week 1-6, pigs fed Diet 6 were able to recover 57% of the lost ADG and 30% of the lost BW gain/feed ratio that occurred when corn fines were increased from 0 to 60%. During week 6-8 (all pigs on a common diet), pigs on Diet 5 and 6 had an increase in ADG compared with Diet 1. In conclusion, as mycotoxins increased pigs exhibited negative effects on ADG and gain/feed ratio but the enzyme FUMzyme ameliorated a portion of these effects. Further, the recovery from week 6-8 from all pigs does show the importance of feeding clean corn to optimize ADG, ADFI and gain/feed ratio.

203 Effects of Feeding Varying Levels of Mycotoxin-Containing Corn Fines on Diet Choice and Growth Performance of Nursery Pigs

Abstract Mycotoxins in feed are known to negatively affect growth and other physiological processes in pigs. Two experiments were conducted to investigate the effects of feeding diets with varying levels of mycotoxins and boron (a nutrient reported to mitigate some aspects of mycotoxicosis). Screenings from the 2020 crop year corn contained mycotoxin levels of 23,038 ppb total fumonisin, 1,446 ppb zearalenone, and 5,032 ppb total deoxynivalenol (DON)l. The corn fines were added into a corn-soybean meal diet formulated to meet or exceed NRC (2012) nutrient requirements as a replacement for corn at 0, 10, and 20% for Diets 1-3. Diets 4-6 were Diets 1-3, respectively, plus 40 ppm boron from sodium tetraborate decahydrate (11.34% B). Diets 3 and 6 were formulated to approximate the cautionary levels of fumonisin and DON stated by the FDA. Exp. 1 used crossbred pigs (n = 144; mean initial BW = 10.20 ± 0.23 kg) blocked by sex and BW and randomly allotted to dietary treatments for a total of 6 replicates (4 pigs/pen) for a 21-day growth performance trial. On day 21, serum was collected from the heaviest and lightest pig in each pen for clinical chemistry assessment. Exp. 2 used crossbred pigs (n = 48; mean initial BW = 9.18 kg ± 0.12 kg) blocked by sex and BW and randomly allotted to 1 of 3 treatment comparisons including: Comparison 1) Diet 1 vs. Diet 2; Comparison 2) Diet 1 vs. Diet 3; and Comparison 3) Diet 2 vs. Diet 3. There were a total of 4 replicates (4 pigs/pen) for a 21-day preference trial. Performance and clinical chemistry data were analyzed by ANOVA using the GLM procedure of SAS with pen as the experimental unit. Preference data were evaluated via t-test. Increasing mycotoxin levels in Exp. 1 had no effect on overall ADG, ADFI, and GF (Table 1; P = 0.16, 0.53, and 0.92, respectively). The increasing mycotoxin levels did effect glucose and cholesterol (P = 0.03, and P &amp;lt; 0.01, respectively). There was no effect of boron on the same performance measures (P = 0.81, 0.59, and 0.76, respectively) although it did decreaser serum glucose (P = 0.02). Exp. 2 demonstrated the barrows ability to discern between diets in Comparisons 2 and 3 (P &amp;lt; 0.01) for each week while gilts only started to exhibit that ability during Week 3 for Comparison 2 (P = 0.06). In conclusion, pigs can differentiate and choose between diets containing these mixed mycotoxins but when not given a choice, the pigs do not have different growth performance using the particular mycotoxins and within the framework of this assessment.

Characterization of Argentine commercial bee pollen intended for human consumption

Bee pollen is consumed as a dietary supplement. Its quality parameters are regulated by the Argentine Food Code (AFCode). The present study characterized 10 commercial dehydrated samples from five Argentine provinces to provide information on hygienic quality and health safety. We assessed their microbiological quality, including potential mycotoxins. We also determined their botanical origin and moisture. Results showed that seven out of ten samples presented lower counts of culturable heterotrophic mesophilic bacteria than those allowed by the AFCode. In contrast, all samples showed higher filamentous fungi and yeast counts than the level approved by the AFCode. No fumonisin or deoxynivalenol was detected; we observed only aflatoxin B2 in one sample and ochratoxin A in two. The results of the botanical origin of samples showed that all samples had a predominant pollen type, except one. The microbiological quality of all samples agreed with that required by the AFCode, except filamentous fungi and yeasts. In addition, we found variations among samples from the same province. Therefore, if pollen is intended for human consumption, appropriate hygiene standards must be applied to all bee pollen production operations. Highlights: The microbiological quality of bee pollen samples, regardless of the province or botanical origin, agreed with the requirements of the AFCode, except for filamentous fungus and yeast. All samples showed filamentous fungus and yeast counts higher than the permitted level in the AFCode. Mycotoxin levels found in bee pollen were far from the limits allowed in humans (10 µg.kg-1) by regulations for other foods. All samples analyzed were pollen mixes verified by identifying numerous botanical species. The characterization of Argentinian commercial bee pollen showed that it was suitable for human consumption.

Effect of nixtamalization of maize and heat treatment of soybean on the nutrient, antinutrient, and mycotoxin levels of maize-soybean-based composite flour

Effect of nixtamalization of maize and heat treatment of soybean on the nutrient, antinutrient, and mycotoxin levels of maize-soybean-based composite flour

Porcine ear necrosis: characterization of lesions and associated pathogens

Porcine ear necrosis (PEN) is characterized by ulcerative lesions of the ear auricle. To investigate that problem, three farms with PEN in nursery pigs were included, and the study aim was to characterize PEN and the potential role of pathogens and mycotoxins. Within each farm, one batch of weaned piglets was included and the prevalence and severity of PEN were monitored for 6–7 weeks. Within each batch, 30 PEN-affected/non-affected animals were randomly selected. Blood samples were taken from these animals, to assess the systemic presence of pathogens and mycotoxins, as well as punch biopsies from the ear auricle for histopathological examination. From 10 animals, scrapings and swabs from the lesions were subjected to nanopore metagenomic sequencing and bacteriological cultivation, respectively. In all three farms, lesions appeared within 3–4 weeks post-weaning. The prevalence at the end of the nursery was 33%, 24%, and 46% for farms A, B, and C, respectively. Most affected pigs had mild to moderate lesions. Blood samples revealed low to very low levels of pathogens and mycotoxins. Different bacteria such as Staphylococcus, Streptococcus, Fusobacterium, Mycoplasma, and Clostridium species were identified by sequencing in the scrapings. The first two pathogens were also most often identified in bacterial cultures. Mycoplasma hyopharyngis was only found in PEN-affected pigs. Histopathological changes were primarily observed in the outer layer of the epidermis. The results suggest that PEN lesions develop by damage to the outer part of the skin e.g. by ear suckling or biting, followed by multiplication of opportunistic pathogens.

Occurrence of Mycotoxins in Dried Fruits Worldwide, with a Focus on Aflatoxins and Ochratoxin A: A Review.

Dried fruits are popular and nutritious snacks consumed worldwide due to their long shelf life and concentrated nutrient content. However, fruits can be contaminated with various toxigenic fungal species during different stages, including cultivation, harvesting, processing, drying, and storage. Consequently, these products may contain high levels of mycotoxins. This risk is particularly pronounced in developed countries due to the impact of climate change. Several factors contribute to mycotoxin production, including the type of fruit, geographical location, climate conditions, harvest treatments, and storage management practices. The main mycotoxins in dried fruits are aflatoxins (AFs) and ochratoxin A (OTA), which can induce human health problems and economic losses. Mycotoxin contamination can vary significantly depending on the geographic origin of dried fruits (vine fruits, figs, dates, apricots, prunes, and mulberries). The aim of this review was to fill the knowledge gap by consolidating data from various regions to understand the global picture and identify regions with higher contamination risks. By consolidating research from various origins and stages of the supply chain, the review intends to shed light on potential contamination events during pre-harvest, drying, storage, and trading, while also highlighting the effects of storage conditions and climate change on mycotoxin contamination.

Determination of mycotoxins in nuts, cereals, legumes, and coffee beans and effectiveness of a selenium‐based decontamination treatment

AbstractLiquid chromatography‐tandem mass spectrometry (LC‐MS/MS) was used for the rapid quantification of multiple mycotoxins, specifically aflatoxins B1, B2, G1, and G2 (AFB1, AFB2, AFG1, and AFG2), ochratoxin A (OTA), deoxynivalenol (DON), and zearalenone (ZEN), in walnuts, pistachios, peanuts, coffee beans, rice, and chickpeas from various countries. Total counts of fungi, Aspergillus flavus, and Aspergillus parasiticus were also assessed, along with the effectiveness of a decontamination treatment with inorganic selenium to reduce mycotoxin levels. Of the 78 samples tested, 69% were contaminated with mycotoxins. ZEN, the predominant mycotoxin contaminant, was detected in all the contaminated samples in concentrations often exceeding the maximum level, followed by AFG1 (28% of the contaminated samples), DON (22%), AFG2 (11%), and AFB1 (5.5%). The occurrence of aflatoxins was associated with high proportions of A. flavus and A. parasiticus. Complete removal of AFB1 from walnuts and DON from roasted coffee beans was achieved by treatment with aqueous selenium, while the levels of ZEN and AFG1 were respectively lowered by 65% to 89% depending on the commodity and by about 56% in roasted coffee beans. While this novel treatment is a promising approach for mycotoxin decontamination, it is not intended to replace safe practices upstream.

A 2-year study reveals implications of feeding management and exposure to mycotoxins on udder health, performance, and fertility in dairy herds

We recently reported the ubiquitous occurrence of mycotoxins and their secondary metabolites in dairy rations and a substantial variation in the feeding management among Austrian dairy farms. The present study aimed to characterize to which extent these factors contribute to the fertility, udder health traits, and performance of dairy herds. During 2019 and 2020, we surveyed 100 dairy farms, visiting each farm 2 times and collecting data and feed samples. Data collection involved information on the main feed ingredients, nutrient composition, and the levels of mycotoxin and other metabolites in the diet. The annual fertility and milk data of the herds were obtained from the national reporting agency. Calving interval was the target criterion for fertility performance, whereas the percentage of primiparous and multiparous in the herd with somatic cell counts (SCC) above 200,000 cells/mL for impaired udder health. For each criterion, herds were classified into 3 groups: High/Long, Mid and Low/Short, with the cut-off corresponding to the < 25th and > 75th percentiles and the rest of the data, respectively. Accordingly, for the calving interval, the cut-offs for the Long and Short groups were ≥400 d and ≤380 d, for the udder health in primiparous cows were ≥20% and ≤8% of the herd, and for the udder health in multiparous cows were ≥35% and ≤20% % of the herd, respectively. Quantitative approaches were further performed to define potential risk factors in the herds. The High SCC group had higher dietary concentrations of enniatins (ENNs) (2.8 vs. 1.62 mg/cow/day), deoxynivalenol (DON) (4.91 vs. 2.3 mg/cow/day), culmorin (CUL) (9.48 vs. 5.72 mg/cow/day), beauvericin (BEA) (0.32 vs. 0.18 mg/cow/d) and siccanol (13.3 vs. 5.15 mg/cow/d), total Fusarium metabolites (42.8 vs. 23.2 mg/cow/d) and used more corn silage in the ration (26.9 vs. 17.3% diet DM) compared with the Low counterparts. BEA was the most substantial contributing variable among the Fusarium metabolites, as indicated by logistic regression and modeling analyses. Logistic analysis indicated that herds with high proportions of cows with milk fat-to-protein ratio >1.5 had an increased odds for a longer calving interval, which was found significant for primiparous cows (odds ratio = 5.5, 95% confidence interval (CI) = 1.65 - 21.7). As well, herds with high proportions of multiparous cows showing levels of milk urea nitrogen > 30 mg/dL had an increased odds for longer calving intervals (odds ratio = 2.96, CI = 1.22 - 7.87). In conclusion, the present findings suggest that dietary contamination of Fusarium mycotoxins (especially emerging ones), likely due to increased use of corn silage in the diet, seems to be a risk factor for impairing the udder health of primiparous cows. Mismatching dietary energy and protein supply of multiparous cows contributed to reduced herd fertility performance.

Mycotoxin Level in Winter Wheat Grain as Impacted by Nitrogen and Manganese Fertilisation

A field experiment with winter wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) cultivation was conducted at the Research and Education Centre in Tomaszkowo, Poland (53°72′ N; 20°42′ E) in the years 2013–2016. Fertilisation with nitrogen at 150 and 200 kg ha−1 and foliar application of manganese at 0.5 and 1.5 kg ha−1 were the research factors. Wheat infestation by Fusarium spp. was determined by the habitat conditions during crop growth. Neither nitrogen nor manganese fertilisation affected the presence of Fusarium spp. symptoms on wheat ears, but the infestation intensity decreased with increasing nitrogen and manganese content in the grain. Only the level of deoxynivalenol (DON) was correlated with Fusarium spp. infestation. Increasing the nitrogen fertilisation rate from 150 kg ha−1 to 200 kg ha−1 resulted in higher grain contamination with toxins. Supplementation of nitrogen fertilisation with manganese reduced the number of mycotoxins in wheat grain. The grain yield was mainly affected by the varied weather conditions during the wheat-growing periods. Neither nitrogen nor manganese fertilisation differentiated the wheat grain yield. The objective of this study was to examine the impact of the weather conditions and nitrogen and manganese fertilisation on the grain yield, occurrence of Fusarium head blight and mycotoxin level in winter wheat grain.

Mycotoxin Determination in Peaches and Peach Products with a Modified QuEChERS Extraction Procedure Coupled with UPLC-MS/MS Analysis.

Peaches are the most significant temperate fruit crop worldwide. However, peach fruits are susceptible to fungal and mycotoxin contamination. Consequently, monitoring the residual levels of multiple mycotoxins in peaches and related products is essential. In this study, a novel method based on QuEChERS extraction, followed by ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS/MS) detection, was developed for analyzing 14 mycotoxins in peaches and peach products from China. Matrix-matched calibrations were employed to accurately quantify the mycotoxins and compensate for matrix effects. Recoveries for the target analytes ranged from 84.6% to 117.6%, with intra-day and inter-day precision below 20%. The limits of quantification were 2 or 5 μg/L for the 14 mycotoxins. This method was utilized to detect the presence of target mycotoxins in 109 fresh peaches, 100 diseased peaches, and 89 peach products from China. Six mycotoxins were identified in the rotten parts of the diseased peaches, with concentrations ranging from 5.2 to 1664.3 µg/kg. In the remaining parts of the diseased peach samples, only two toxins, alternariol (AOH) and alternariol monomethyl ether (AME), were quantified at levels of 15.3 µg/kg and 15.5 µg/kg, respectively. No mycotoxins were detected in fresh peaches. For peach products, all contamination levels were below the quantitative limits and significantly lower than the maximum legal limits established for the products.

Effect of Fungicide Treatment on Multi-Mycotoxin Occurrence in French Wheat during a 4-Year Period

Wheat represents one of the most widely consumed cereals worldwide. Cultivated in winter and spring, it is vulnerable to an array of different pathogens, including fungi, which are managed largely through the in-field application of fungicides. During this study, a 4-year field investigation (2018–2021) was performed in France, aiming to assess the efficacy of fungicide treatment to reduce mycotoxin contamination in common and durum wheat. Several different commercially available fungicides were applied via sprayers. Concentrations of mycotoxins and fungal metabolites in wheat were determined using a multi-analyte liquid-chromatography–tandem-mass-spectrometry-based method. The highest contamination levels and strongest effects of fungicides were observed in 2018, followed by 2021. A significant fungicide-mediated reduction was observed for the trichothecenes deoxynivalenol, deoxynivalenol-3-glucoside, nivalenol, and nivalenol-3-glucoside. Furthermore, fungicide treatment also reduced levels of culmorin and its hydroxy metabolites 5- and 15-hydroxy-culmorin, as well as aurofusarin. Interestingly, the Alternaria metabolite infectopyron was increased following fungicide treatment. In conclusion, fungicide treatment was effective in reducing mycotoxin levels in wheat. However, as complete prevention of mycotoxin contamination was not achieved, fungicide treatment should always be combined with other pre- and post-harvest mycotoxin mitigation strategies to improve food and feed safety.

Simultaneous analysis of mildew degree and aflatoxin B1 of wheat by a multi-task deep learning strategy based on microwave detection technology

This study proposes a novel qualitative and quantitative analysis method for wheat mildew degree and aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) by microwave detection technology combined with multi-task learning strategy. The team developed a miniaturized microwave detection device with double heterodyne mixing structure, and used this device to obtain the transmission indexes (amplitude and phase) of moldy wheat samples. A multi-task learning model based on convolutional neural network (CNN) structure was designed to realize the self-learning and model calibration of the transmission indexes, and to complete the classification and regression tasks of wheat mildew degree recognition and AFB1 content detection. The obtained results found that in the qualitative analysis, the accuracy, precision, recall, and F1-score of the fusion CNN model were all 100% during the prediction. In the quantitative detection, the RMSEP, RP2 and RPD of the fusion CNN model respectively were 2.0138 μg kg−1, 0.9807 and 7.2849. The overall results reveal that it is feasible to realize simultaneous analysis of the contamination level of wheat mycotoxins by microwave detection technology combined with deep learning, and the application of multi-task learning strategy can effectively avoid the waste of resources in the process of model calibration.

Mycotoxin Determination and Occurrence in Pseudo-Cereals Intended for Food and Feed: A Review.

Nowadays, pseudo-cereals' consumption is increasing due to their health benefits as they possess an excellent nutrient profile. Whole pseudo-cereal grains are rich in a wide range of compounds, namely flavonoids, phenolic acids, fatty acids, and vitamins with known beneficial effects on human and animal health. Mycotoxins are common contaminants in cereals and by-products; however, the study of their natural occurrence in pseudo-cereals is currently scarce. Pseudo-cereals are similar to cereal grains; thus, mycotoxin contamination is expected to occur in pseudo-cereals. Indeed, mycotoxin-producing fungi have been reported in these matrices and, consequently, mycotoxin contents have been reported too, especially in buckwheat samples, where ochratoxin A and deoxynivalenol reached levels up to 1.79 μg/kg and 580 μg/kg, respectively. In comparison to cereal contamination, mycotoxin levels detected in pseudo-cereal samples are lower; however, more studies are necessary in order to describe the mycotoxin pattern in these samples and to establish maximum levels that ensure human and animal health protection. In this review, mycotoxin occurrence in pseudo-cereal samples as well as the main extraction methods and analytical techniques to determine them are described, showing that mycotoxins can be present in pseudo-cereal samples and that the most employed techniques for their determination are liquid and gas chromatography coupled to different detectors.

Longitudinal follow-up of zearalenone and deoxynivalenol mycotoxins in breast milk in the first five months of life

ObjectivesThere is a possibility for exposed lactating mammalians to transfer some contaminants to their milk. This study aimed to determine the levels and changes of Zearalenone (ZEN), Deoxynivalenol (DON) mycotoxins for the first five months in human milk.MethodsVoluntary lactating mothers having infants with gestational length ≥ 37 weeks were enrolled between August 2017 and June 2018 in Şanlıurfa. Mothers and infants with chronic health problems were not included in the study. Human milk samples were taken at three different times; on enrollment (Day 6–10, visit 1), between 4 and 6 weeks postpartum (visit 2), and between 14 and 19 weeks postpartum (visit 3). Mycotoxin levels in human milk were measured utilizing Helica brand commercial kit.ResultsNineteen voluntary mothers and their breastfed infants with three human milk samples completed the study. The mean ages of mothers and infant (± SD) were 27.4 (± 5.4) years and 7.6 (± 0.9) days on enrollment. Median levels of ZEN and DON in human milk samples were 0.39 and 16.7 ng/mL, respectively. None of the cases had a ZEN daily intake higher than 250 ng/kg bw per day. However, three fourth of the cases had DON intake higher than > 1000 ng/kg bw per day. When adjusted for infant weight for age and sex, both ZEN levels and daily intake were decreased progressively from visit 1 to visit 3 (p < 0.001). DON levels and daily intake at visit 2 were found to be significantly lower in samples of visit 3 than that taken in visit 2 (p = 0.004 and p < 0.001, respectively).ConclusionsBreast milk monitoring study revealed that ZEN and DON mycotoxins were present in the mother-infant environment. Contamination levels changed during the lactation period.

Biocontrol of Fusarium Species Utilizing Indigenous Rooibos and Honeybush Extracts.

Mycotoxins produced by several Fusarium species have a significant effect on reducing maize yield and grain quality and have led to food safety concerns. The antifungal activities of rooibos (Aspalathus linearis) and honeybush (Cyclopia species) tea extracts reduced the growth of plant pathogen Botrytis cinerea, but their efficacy against Fusarium spp. is unknown. In this study, we examined the effects of fermented and unfermented rooibos (A. linearis) and honeybush (Cyclopia subternata) aqueous extracts as well as green tea (Camellia sinensis) against 10 Fusarium species. Conidial viability was assessed by fluorescence microscopy dyes, ATP production was determined using the BacTiter-Glo assay, the mode of action was analyzed by scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and quantification of polyphenols was done using high-performance liquid chromatography with diode array detection (HPLC-DAD). Fermented rooibos extract demonstrated the highest antifungal activity (P < 0.0001) against Fusarium verticillioides MRC 826-E, Fusarium subglutinans MRC 8553, Fusarium proliferatum MRC 8549, and Fusarium globosum MRC 6647, with only 9.53%, 9.26%, 11.0%, and 12.7% ATP production, respectively, followed by antifungal activity of the fermented C. subternata extract against F. subglutinans MRC 8553, F. subglutinans MRC 8554, F. proliferatum MRC 8550, and F. verticillioides MRC 826-E with 3.79%, 6.04%, 6.04%, and 8.40% ATP production, respectively. Extract-treated conidia examined by SEM exhibited disruption of conidial hyphae and collapsed spores. Overall, the fermented rooibos and C. subternata extracts showed higher antifungal activity against the Fusarium species than the unfermented extracts. IMPORTANCE In maize subsistence farming areas in South Africa, daily consumption of maize contaminated by high level of mycotoxins contributes to long-term health effects such as immune deficiency and cancer. Biocontrol methods that are safe and cost-effective are critical to addressing this public health problem. Plant extracts known as biocides or green pesticides are alternatives to chemical pesticides due to their safety and eco-friendly properties. In South Africa, rooibos (Aspalathus linearis) and honeybush (Cyclopia species) contain polyphenols with significant antioxidant and antimicrobial properties. These indigenous herbal teas are widely available and consumed in South Africa and have potential as an innovative approach to reduce mycotoxin levels and, subsequently, human and animal exposure to these toxins. This study evaluates the efficacy of the antifungal activities of several aqueous extracts prepared from fermented and unfermented rooibos (A. linearis), honeybush (Cyclopia subternata), and green tea (Camellia sinensis) on 10 Fusarium strains.

Effects of supplemented multicomponent mycotoxin detoxifying agent in laying hens fed aflatoxin B1 and T2-toxin contaminated feeds

The present study was conducted to determine the ability of multicomponent mycotoxin detoxifying agent (MMDA) in feed to prevent the gastrointestinal absorption of aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) and T2-toxin supplemented via spiked maize. For comparisons, hens were fed with uncontaminated basal diet without or with addition of MMDA at 2 g/kg feed. The trial consisted of 105 laying hens (Lohmann Brown) without obvious signs of disease allocated to 7 treatment groups in 35 pens. Responses were demonstrated on laying performance and health status throughout the 42 d experimental period. The results of laying performance indicated significantly decreased egg mass with increasing mycotoxin (AFB1 and T2-toxin) levels up to the maximum tolerated dosage, however simultaneous presence of MMDA laying performance was slightly modified linearly to increasing application. Dose-dependent pathological changes in liver and kidneys and their relative weights, changes in blood parameters and reduced eggshell weights were observed in the hens fed AFB1 and T2-toxin. The pathological changes in the hens fed with diets containing AFB1 and T2-toxin without MMDA were significantly higher as compared with the control group, but eggshell stability was not affected. The contents of AFB1, T2-toxin and their metabolites in liver and kidney tissues were significantly decreased in the hens supplemented with MMDA at 2 and 3 g/kg in feed. MMDA supplementation significantly reduced the deposition of AFB1, T2-toxin and their metabolites in liver and kidneys at the maximum tolerated dosage (2 and 3 g/kg) indicating specific binding to AFB1 and T2-toxin in the digestive tract as compared to the corresponding diets without MMDA. Exposure of AFB1 and T2-toxin indicated significantly decreased egg mass with increasing mycotoxin levels up to the maximum tolerated dosage because of the significantly reduced egg production. Therefore, in this study, MMDA could reduce negative effects of feeding AFB1 and T-2 to laying hens.

Effects of drying conditions on grain quality: a review

Post-harvest grain drying reduces water activity, which reduces the rates of chemical reactions responsible for grain deterioration and which are essential for maintaining their quality. Most studies on grain drying are performed on the laboratory scale to study the factors that determine the quality of grains on a large scale. Such factors include air temperature and flow, grain layer thickness, raw material composition, and drying system employed. This review describes the effects of drying systems and their variations on grain quality, focusing on the physicochemical properties, mycotoxin levels, and bioactive compounds and components of grains.