Types Of Mycorrhiza Research Articles

Applications of Arbuscular Mycorrhiza Fungi to Improve Growth of Oil Palm Seedlings and Disease Resistance Against Ganoderma sp.

Currently, basal stem rot disease incident in oil palm caused by the Ganoderma sp. increasing rapidly. Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) are one of the types of mycorrhizae that are useful for plants as they can increase plant growth and resistance to disease. Therefore, this study aimed to determine whether the application of AMF to oil palm seedlings was able to increase the growth and resistance of oil palm seedlings against Ganoderma sp. The study used a factorial treatment design (4x2) with 5 replications arranged according to a completely randomized block design. The first factor was the type of AMF, namely without AMF (m0), Glomus sp. (m1), Entrophospora sp. (m2), and a mixture of Glomus sp. with Entrophospora sp. (m3). The second factor was soil from the oil palm rhizosphere that was attacked by Ganoderma sp., namely sterilized soil (g0) and unsterilized soil (g1). The data obtained were analyzed using analysis of variance and the mean separation was tested using the Least Significant Difference test at the 5% level. The results showed that all AMF treatments (m1, m2, and m3) increased the growth of oil palm seedlings compared to controls. Ganoderma sp. present in the planting medium has not inhibited the growth of oil palm seedlings (both control and those applied with AMF) as there is no Ganoderma sp. infection in the roots of oil palm seedlings observed at the end of the study (5 months after planting)

The influence of inoculation and drought on the diversity of fungal communities in the roots of tomato plants

Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) are microorganisms with very important functions in agricultural systems. Since arbuscular mycorrhiza is one of the most common types of mycorrhizae, the diversity of AMF is very varied. Their diversity can be influenced by various biotic and abiotic factors. Of these, drought is one of the most common abiotic stresses in agriculture. In this study, we evaluated the influence of drought and inoculation with three species of AMF (Rhizoglomus irregulare, Funneliformis mosseae and F. caledonium) on the fungal genetic diversity in the roots of tomato plants (Solanum lycopersicum L.) using partial 18S rRNA gene in molecular fingerprinting method. Two conserved primer pairs NS1–NS4 and NS31–AM1 in Nested PCR were used. The second primer pair is specific for AM fungi from Glomeromycota, but also amplifies DNA from Ascomycota and Basidiomycota to a very small extent. Drought caused a decrease in fungal alpha diversity in tomato roots of non-inoculated plants. On the other hand, an increase of this diversity due to drought in inoculated plants was observed. Based on principal component analysis, a statistically significant shift in the composition of fungal communities in non-inoculated and inoculated plants due to drought was not detected. At the same time, the most variable fungal communities were in control well-watered and non-inoculated plants, but this variation was not significant.

Matching of Nitrogen Enhancement and Photosynthetic Efficiency by Arbuscular Mycorrhiza in Maize (Zea mays L.) in Relation to Organic Fertilizer Type

In the present study, Funneliformis mosseae (FM), Claroideoglomus etunicatum (CE), and Acaulospora foveata (AF) were inoculated to hybrid maize (Zea mays L. cv. CP888®). Upregulation of nitrogen levels were dependent on the type of mycorrhiza (AMF). Photosynthetic efficiency (Fv/Fm) and water content in FM- and AF-inoculated plants were elevated, resulting in promotion of leaf area and shoot biomass. N content in the shoot and root tissues of the FM-inoculated plants increased by 21% and 30% over the control. A positive correlation between biochemical, physiological, and morphological parameters using Pearson’s coefficient was demonstrated. A decline in lipid peroxidation was noticed in the FM-inoculated plants. In addition, we investigated the potential of N fertilizer application in combination with FM inoculation in maize plants. The FM-inoculated plants with organic O_LT, a chicken manure fertilizer, increased N content in the host shoots by 73% over the control, leading to improved Fv/Fm as a physiological adaptation strategy. The FM and the O_LT on the regulation of the N enhancement and photosynthetic efficiency of the hybrid maize should further be validated in field trials in different environments for sustainability.

The use of different concentrations of Nickel and Lead for the inhibition growth of some types of soil microorganisms

Three types of Mycorrhiza has been chosen R. rosulus, S. varigatus and P. involutus in removing and lowering the ascending concentration of nickel and lead elements during three incubation and contact periods (5,7 and 10 days), and comparing the isolated growth with control sample. Type of P. involutus is the most efficient in the removal by observing the growth of isolates by increasing it's diameter compared to the control samples and the concentration of nickel and lead, and for all the days of incubation, while the type S. varigatus was the highest growth at low concentration of nickel and lead only for all periods of incubation, for type R. rosulus, the diameter was smaller as compared to control samples and for all elements concentration of nickel and lead, except at concentration (2.5ppm), which showed increase in diameter for nickel, and is generally observed increase diameters of the isolates of the three types by increasing periods of incubation and all elemental concentrations of nickel and lead, and this increase is less than at high concentrations of these elements and of all species studied.

The Effect of Surrounding Vegetation on the Mycorrhizal Fungal Communities of the Temperate Tree Crataegus monogyna Jacq.

About 90% of all land plants form mycorrhiza to facilitate the acquisition of essential nutrients such as phosphorus, nitrogen, and sometimes carbon. Based on the morphology of the interaction and the identity of the interacting plants and fungi, four major mycorrhizal types have been distinguished: arbuscular mycorrhiza (AM), ectomycorrhizal (EcM), ericoid mycorrhiza, and orchid mycorrhiza. Although most plants are assumed to form only one type of mycorrhiza, some species simultaneously form associations with two mycorrhizal types within a single root system. However, the dual-mycorrhizal status of many species is under discussion and in some plant species the simultaneous association with two mycorrhizal types varies in space or time or depends on the ecological context. Here, we assessed the mycorrhizal communities associating with common hawthorn (Crataegus monogyna), a small tree that commonly associates with AM fungi, and investigated the potential factors that underlie variation in mycorrhizal community composition. Histological staining of C. monogyna roots showed the presence of a Hartig net and hyphal sheaths in and around the roots, demonstrating the capacity of C. monogyna to form EcM. Meta-barcoding of soil and root samples of C. monogyna collected in AM-dominated grassland vegetation and in mixed AM + EcM forest vegetation showed a much higher number of EcM sequences and OTUs in root and soil samples from mixed AM + EcM vegetation than in samples from pure AM vegetation. We conclude that C. monogyna is able to form both AM and EcM, but that the extent to which it does depends on the environmental context, i.e., the mycorrhizal type of the surrounding vegetation.

A historical perspective on mycorrhizal mutualism emphasizing arbuscular mycorrhizas and their emerging challenges.

Arbuscular mycorrhiza, one of the oldest interactions on earth (~ 450 million years old) and a first-class partner for plants to colonize emerged land, is considered one of the most pervasive ecological relationships on the globe. Despite how important and old this interaction is, its discovery was very recent compared to the long story of land plant evolution. The story of the arbuscular mycorrhiza cannot be addressed apart from the history, controversies, and speculations about mycorrhiza in its broad sense. The chronicle of mycorrhizal research is marked by multiple key milestones such as the initial description of a "persistent epiderm and pellicular wall structure" by Hartig; the introduction of the "Symbiotismus" and "Mycorrhiza" concepts by Frank; the description of diverse root-fungal morphologies; the first description of arbuscules by Gallaud; Mosse's pivotal statement of the beneficial nature of the arbuscular mycorrhizal symbiosis; the impact of molecular tools on the taxonomy of mycorrhizal fungi as well as the development of in vitro root organ cultures for producing axenic arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF). An appreciation of the story - full of twists and turns - of the arbuscular mycorrhiza, going from the roots of mycorrhiza history, along with the discovery of different mycorrhiza types such as ectomycorrhiza, can improve research to help face our days' challenge of developing sustainable agriculture that integrates the arbuscular mycorrhiza and its ecosystem services.

Auditing data resolves systemic errors in databases and confirms mycorrhizal trait consistency for most genera and families of flowering plants.

Nearly 150years of research has accumulated large amounts of data on mycorrhizal association types in plants. However, this important resource includes unreliable allocated traits for some species. An audit of six commonly used data sources revealed a high degree of consistency in the mycorrhizal status of most species, genera and families of vascular plants, but there were some records that contradict the majority of other data (~ 10% of data overall). Careful analysis of contradictory records using rigorous definitions of association types revealed that the majority were diagnosis errors, which often stem from references predating modern knowledge of mycorrhiza types. Other errors are linked to inadequate microscopic examinations of roots or plants with complex root anatomy, such as phi thickenings or beaded roots. Errors consistently occurred at much lower frequencies than correct records but have accumulated in uncorrected databases. This results in less accurate knowledge about dominant plants in someecosystems because they were sampled more often. Errors have also propagated from one database to another over decades when data were amalgamated without checking their suitability. Due to these errors, it is often incorrect to designate plants reported to have inconsistent mycorrhizas as "facultatively mycorrhizal". Updated protocols for resolving conflicting mycorrhizal data are provided here. These are based on standard morphological definitions of association types, which are the foundations of mycorrhizal science. This analysis also identifies the need for adequate training and mentoring of researchers to maintain the quality of mycorrhizal research.

Use of Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi (AMF) and Zinc Fertilizers in An Adaptation of Plant from Drought and Heat Stress

Mycorrhizae are an important player in the ecosystem. Three different types of mycorrhizae are arbuscular mycorrhizae (AM), ectomycorrhizae (EcM), and ericoid mycorrhizae...

Mycorrhizal type and soil pathogenic fungi mediate tree survival and density dependence in a temperate forest

The Janzen-Connell hypothesis has been explored by many ecologists in a great number of forests. Numerous studies have suggested that mycorrhizal type and fungal composition may affect the conspecific negative density dependence (CNDD) among tree species. However, how the variations and roles of mycorrhizal type and fungi compositions influence CNDD remains a challenge in temperate forests. We used tree demographic data in a 42–ha plot over ten years to test the effects of two types of tree mycorrhiza (arbuscular mycorrhiza: AM and ectomycorrhizal mycorrhiza: EM) on the survival of 45 species over three types of tree ontogeny (sapling, juvenile, adult trees), and the relationship between CNDD and soil fungal community composition of 8 common species. The results of this study show that AM tree species experienced stronger CNDD than EM tree species in each of the three ontogenetic stages. EM tree species with higher mutualistic fungi and lower pathogenic fungi may suffer lower CNDD. Individual trees with higher pathogenic fungi may be affected more severely by CNDD in our temperate forest. Our findings highlight the key roles of mycorrhizal association in mediating the strength of CNDD on tree survival, which may affect the plant community composition of temperate forests.

Screening of the plant growth-promoting mycorrhizal fungi in Guizhou blueberry

Endophytic microorganisms can form a reciprocal symbiosis relationship with plants, and some can improve the survival ability of plants in adversity and promote plant growth and development. In order to further understand the isolation of blueberry endophytic fungi, mycorrhizal fungi that promote the growth of blueberries were screened out. In this paper, blueberry root samples were collected from 5 places in Guizhou Province, and the endophytic fungi were identified by morphological and molecular biological methods. The types of mycorrhizal fungi were determined by the way of back-joining method. Based on the mycorrhizal infection, several kinds of easy culture and energy were selected. A strain that effectively infects blueberry plants and promotes the growth and development of blueberries. The results showed that a total of 995 endophytic fungi were isolated from 5 regions in Guizhou, which were divided into 42 genera, of which Chaetomium spp. and Fusarium spp. were the most dominant, representing 22.91% and 16.18% respectively, followed by Phialocephala spp. (9.54%). Through literature reviewed and tie-back experiments, 9 types of mycorrhizas (Y-037, Y-007, Y-078, Y-017, Y-026, X-065, Y-079, Y-012, Y-005). Among them, Y-037 has the strongest infection intensity and significantly promotes plant growth. This research provides a theoretical basis for proposing a set of efficient and mature blueberry mycorrhizal cultivation technology.

EKSPLORASI MIKORIZA ARBUSKULA PADA BEBERAPA KEDALAMAN TANAH DI PERAKARAN RUMPUT BANTENG PADA LAHAN PASCATAMBANG

The presence of mycorrhizae can reduce the level of poisoning caused by heavy metals in post-mining land and support plant growth. Post-mining land is generally only a few types of mycorrhizae that can adapt, especially post-mining land. This research was conducted to determine the presence, types and distribution of mycorrhizae as well as the relationship between soil depth and mycorrhizal distribution and soil chemical properties at various depths in the rhizosphere of bull grass as the dominant vegetation in post-coal mining land. The results showed that there were arbuscular mycorrhizae at each soil depth with different population density levels, namely 273 spores 100 g-1 soil at a depth of 0 - 10 cm (K10); 239 spores 100 g-1 soil at a depth of 10 – 20 cm (K20) and 155 spores 100 g-1 soil at a depth of 20 – 30 cm (K30). The arbuscular mycorrhizae found at all soil depths are of the same type, which is included in the genus Glomus. Soil depth with the number of arbuscular mycorrhizal distribution (r count -0.7754> r table -0.4973) has a very strong relationship and with soil pH (r count -0.6309> r table -0.4973) has a strong relationship. The number of distribution of arbuscular mycorrhizae with soil pH (r count 0.5943> r table 0.4973) has a strong relationship

Mixing tree species associated with arbuscular or ectotrophic mycorrhizae reveals dual mycorrhization and interactive effects on the fungal partners.

Recent studies found that the majority of shrub and tree species are associated with both arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) and ectomycorrhizal (EM) fungi. However, our knowledge on how different mycorrhizal types interact with each other is still limited. We asked whether the combination of hosts with a preferred association with either AM or EM fungi increases the host tree roots’ mycorrhization rate and affects AM and EM fungal richness and community composition.We established a tree diversity experiment, where five tree species of each of the two mycorrhiza types were planted in monocultures, two‐species and four‐species mixtures. We applied morphological assessment to estimate mycorrhization rates and next‐generation molecular sequencing to quantify mycobiont richness.Both the morphological and molecular assessment revealed dual‐mycorrhizal colonization in 79% and 100% of the samples, respectively. OTU community composition strongly differed between AM and EM trees. While host tree species richness did not affect mycorrhization rates, we observed significant effects of mixing AM‐ and EM‐associated hosts in AM mycorrhization rate. Glomeromycota richness was larger in monotypic AM tree combinations than in AM‐EM mixtures, pointing to a dilution or suppression effect of AM by EM trees. We found a strong match between morphological quantification of AM mycorrhization rate and Glomeromycota richness. Synthesis. We provide evidence that the combination of hosts differing in their preferred mycorrhiza association affects the host's fungal community composition, thus revealing important biotic interactions among trees and their associated fungi.

Effect of cadmium on sorghum root colonization by glomeral fungi and its impact on total and easily extractable glomalin production.

Glomalin is a specific glycoprotein compound synthesized by glomeral fungi and its amount varies according to soil conditions. Due to the symbiosis of these fungi with a multitude of plants, a remarkable amount of glomalin is produced inside the hypha wall of these fungi. Furthermore, while increasing the symbiosis stability, glomalin plays a critical role in reducing the availability of potentially toxic elements (PTEs) through their fixation. In this regard, soil contamination with PTEs such as cadmium (Cd) affects the glomalin production of mycorrhiza fungi. In order to investigate the effect of different levels of Cd on glomalin production of three species of arbuscular mycorrhiza fungi in the presence of sorghum, a greenhouse experiment was conducted in a completely randomized design with factorial arrangement and three repetitions. Factors include four levels of Cd (0, 5, 10, 20 milligrams per kilogram of soil) and second factor included these three types of mycorrhiza: Funneliformis mosseae (FM), Rhizophagus intraradices (RI), and Claroideoglomus etunicatum (CE). The results of this study showed that when increasing soil Cd concentration, shoot dry weight, root colonization percentage, total and easily extractable glomalin decreased while leaf proline concentration, shoot, and root Cd concentration increased. The presence of mycorrhiza in comparison with the control increased the dry weight of shoots and plant height. The results showed that mycorrhizal treatments increased total and easily extractable glomalin compared to the absence of mycorrhiza. Also, the highest amount of glomalin production was observed in two species of FM and CE. Complexation of Cd by total glomalin and easily extractable glomalin was higher in two species of FM and CE rather than RI. The results showed that the use of three species of mycorrhizae reduced the adverse effects of high levels of Cd. Also, the concentration of leaf proline, soluble sugars, shoot, and root Cd concentration was higher in presence of mycorrhizal fungal species than in plant not inoculated with mycorrhizal fungal species. This increase was significant in both FM and CE species. Finally, a notable positive correlation was also observed between glomalin measured by Bradford method and percentage of root colonization.

Factors of Carbon and Nitrogen Contents in the Fine Roots of Plants in the Middle Urals

Abstract—Some factors influencing C and N contents in fine plant roots were studied in the Middle Urals. They included ecological (edaphic) features of habitats; type of root symbioses (the capability for symbiotic nitrogen fixation and formation of different mycorrhiza types); and ecological strategies of species. Samples of fine roots from woody and herbaceous plants and of the upper soil layer were collected in two industrial dump sites and in an area with natural communities. In each area, samples were taken from forest and meadow habitats. The content of C or N in the species from the sampling plot served as an observation unit. A total of 83 estimates were analyzed. As a result, differences were revealed between the key factors influencing the content of each element in fine roots: the C content is determined mainly by the type of mycorrhiza, while the determinant factor for the N content is the capability for symbiotic nitrogen fixation; ecological features of habitats and the type of plant ecological strategy are the second and third factors influencing the C and N contents. The patterns of N accumulation in the roots of plants with different ecological strategies and with different types of mycorrhizas do not fully replicate the patterns of N accumulation in their leaves.

Partial mycoheterotrophy is common among chlorophyllous plants with Paris-type arbuscular mycorrhiza.

An arbuscular mycorrhiza is a mutualistic symbiosis with plants as carbon providers for fungi. However, achlorophyllous arbuscular mycorrhizal species are known to obtain carbon from fungi, i.e. they are mycoheterotrophic. These species all have the Paris type of arbuscular mycorrhiza. Recently, two chlorophyllous Paris-type species proved to be partially mycoheterotrophic. In this study, we explore the frequency of this condition and its association with Paris-type arbuscular mycorrhiza. We searched for evidence of mycoheterotrophy in all currently published 13C, 2H and 15N stable isotope abundance patterns suited for calculations of enrichment factors, i.e. isotopic differences between neighbouring Paris- and Arum-type species. We found suitable data for 135 plant species classified into the two arbuscular mycorrhizal morphotypes. About half of the chlorophyllous Paris-type species tested were significantly enriched in 13C and often also enriched in 2H and 15N, compared with co-occurring Arum-type species. Based on a two-source linear mixing model, the carbon gain from the fungal source ranged between 7 and 93 % with ferns > horsetails > seed plants. The seed plants represented 13 families, many without a previous record of mycoheterotrophy. The 13C-enriched chlorophyllous Paris-type species were exclusively herbaceous perennials, with a majority of them thriving on shady forest ground. Significant carbon acquisition from fungi appears quite common and widespread among Paris-type species, this arbuscular mycorrhizal morphotype probably being a pre-condition for developing varying degrees of mycoheterotrophy.

Influence of fine root traits on in situ exudation rates in four conifers from different mycorrhizal associations.

Plant roots can exude organic compounds into the soil that are useful for plant survival because they can degrade microorganisms around the roots and enhance allelopathy against other plant invasions. We developed a method to collect carbon (C) exudation on a small scale from tree fine roots by C-free filter traps. We quantified total C through root exudation in four conifers from different microbial symbiotic groups (ectomycorrhiza (ECM) and arbuscular mycorrhiza (AM)) in a cool-temperate forest in Japan. We determined the relationship of mass-based exudation rate from three diameter classes (<0.5, 0.5-1.0, and 1.0-2.5mm) of the intact root system with root traits such as morphological traits including root diameter, specific root length (SRL), specific root area (SRA), root tissue density (RTD) and chemical traits including root nitrogen (N) content and C/N. Across species, the mass-based root exudation rate was found to correlate with diameter, SRA, RTD, N and C/N. When comparing mycorrhizal types, there were significant relationships between the exudation and diameter, SRL, SRA, root N and C/N in ECM species; however, these were not significant in AM species. Our results show that relationships between in situ root exudation and every measured trait of morphology and chemistry were strongly driven by ECM roots and not by AM roots. These differences might explain the fact that ECM roots in this study potentially covaried by optimizing the exudation and root morphology in forest trees, while exudation in AM roots did not change with changes in root morphology. In addition, the contrasting results may be attributable to the effect of degree and position of ECM and AM colonization in fine root system. Differences in fine root exudation relationships to root morphology for the two types of mycorrhizae will help us better understand the underlying mechanisms of belowground C allocation in forest ecosystems.

Nitrogen source utilization in co-existing canopy tree and dwarf bamboo in a northern hardwood forest in Japan

Understory dwarf bamboo mitigated soil N competition with co-existing canopy oak trees by foraging in deeper soils and increasing dependence on N forms that differ from those used by canopy trees. Nitrogen (N) competition among co-existing plant species utilizing different mycorrhiza types was explored through the investigation of N sources of oak trees and dwarf bamboo. Vertical distribution of fine roots, soil N pools, δ15N of leaves, and possible soil N sources and nitrate reductase activity (NRA) were all quantified. The fine roots of canopy trees were more concentrated in the surface soils than roots of the understory dwarf bamboo. Soil NH4+ and extractable organic N (EON) content (based on unit weight) decreased from the organic horizon (O horizon) to the deep soils, the size of the NH4+ pool per unit volume increased with soil depth, and the EON was approximately constant. Soil NO3− was not detected at any soil depth or was not significant in value, while NO3− captured by ion-exchange resin (IER) buried at a 10 cm soil depth and net nitrification were observed via laboratory incubation at all soil depths. The δ15N of the NH4+ and EON pools increased with soil depth and the δ15N of NO3− of IER was lower than that of other N forms, except for the δ15N of NH4+ in the O horizon. Furthermore, root NRA tended to be lower in canopy trees than in the understory, implying lower dependency on NO3− by canopy trees. The pattern of root distribution and mycorrhizal fungi association of the understory vegetation (as well as the high root NRA) suggested that dependence on N in deeper soils was higher in understory plants than in canopy trees. These findings indicate that understory vegetation mitigates soil N competition against co-existing canopy trees via the use of alternative N sources.

Temperature affected the formation of arbuscular mycorrhizas and ectomycorrhizas in Populus angustifolia seedlings more than a mild drought

Arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) plants and fungi associate with lower soil organic matter, higher pH, lower phosphorus and higher nitrogen than ectomycorrhizal (EM) ones. However, soil conditions correlate with climatic factors, and we suggest that temperature and humidity have also direct roles in the success of mycorrhiza types. The hypothesis here is that EM perform better at low temperatures than AM, and AM resist drought better than EM.Narrowleaf cottonwood (Populus angustifolia E. James) forms both AM and EM. We grew seedlings in soil at 14, 20 and 26 °C in factorial combinations with adequate watering and a cyclic mild drought for 4 and 7 weeks.As hypothesized, the percent of EM root tips was largest at 14 °C, while the proportional root length with AM was largest at the two higher temperatures. However, unlike expectations, drought increased EM formation slightly, while the AM colonization was lower in the dry treatment. Plant growth was reduced more by low temperature than drought. Root branching was more prominent at low temperature and root length and mass growth at higher temperatures.Soil nutrient availability did not provide a direct explanation to the results, as both soluble soil N and P were the same in 14 and 20 °C, while the change in mycorrhiza colonization took place between these temperatures. Differences in root morphology (root branching vs length) may affect the proportions of the mycorrhiza types at different temperature regimes. The most likely explanation to the differential colonization is that temperature affects AM and EM fungi in a different way. In nature, temperature and humidity regimes are tightly correlated, and temperature as such may be a stronger determinant for the success of mycorrhiza types than has been previously considered. The poorer performance of AM in low-temperature and drought conditions may reflect stress avoidance rather than stress tolerance by AM fungi.

Ultrastructural changes during the symbiotic seed germination of Gastrodia elata with fungi, with emphasis on the fungal colonization region

BackgroundGastrodia elata is a fully mycoheterotrophic orchid and has long been used in traditional Chinese medicine. The life cycle of G. elata requires an association with two different fungi-Mycena for seed germination and Armillaria for tuber growth. The association with Armillaria is representative of the phytophagous type of orchid mycorrhiza: the intracellular hyphae are lysed without forming condensed pelotons. However, whether the association with Mycena during seed germination belongs to the same type of orchid mycorrhiza is unknown.ResultsHistological and ultrastructural studies revealed several notable features in different developmental stages. First, a thickened cell wall with papillae-like structures appeared during fungal penetration in the suspensor end cell, epidermal cells and cortical cells of germinating embryos. In addition, the formation of two distinctive cell types in the colonized region of a protocorm (i.e., the passage canal cell filled with actively growing fungal hyphae) can be observed in the epidermal cell, and the distinctive digestion cell with a dense cytoplasm appears in the cortex. Finally, within the digestion cell, numerous electron-dense tubules form a radial system and attach to degrading fungal hyphae. The fungal hyphae appear to be digested through endocytosis.ConclusionsThe present study provides important structural evidence for the phytophagous type of orchid mycorrhiza in the symbiotic germination of G. elata with Mycena. This case demonstrates a particular nutrient transfer network between G. elata and its litter-decaying fungal partner.

Compatibility and effectivity of various mycorrhizal sources with cassava varieties in Gunungkidul

This study aims at understanding the interaction between various mycorrhizal sources and three local cassava varieties of Gunungkidul, specifically on their compatibility, population, mycorrhizal diversity, and their effect on cassava growth. The experiments were conducted based on Completely Randomised Design (CRD) with experimental factors using three treatments in triplicates. The experimental factors included three cassava varieties and various sources of mycorrhiza. The results demonstrated that among the interactions of various mycorrhizas with three local cassava varieties of Gunungkidul, the highest infection was seen from Mentega cultivar inoculated with indigenous mycorrhiza of the Alfisol soil of Gunungkidul (95%). Mycorrhizal diversity using indigenous mycorrhiza of Alfisol soil was higher than mycorrhiza of pandan rhizosphere and commercial inoculant, and the dominant mycorrhiza type was of spores belonging to genus Glomus. On the other hand, the indigenous mycorrhiza of Alfisol soil inoculant on various cassava varieties demonstrated similar effect and yielded the same number of spores, root length, and plant dry weight; despite the fact that on Kirik cultivar growth, the significant difference was observed on the plant height, leaf number and fresh net weight.