Mustang District Research Articles

Sex differences in genotype frequency and the risk of polycythemia associated with rs13419896 and rs2790859 among Tibetan highlanders living in Tsarang, Mustang, Nepal

BackgroundTibetan highlanders have adapted to hypoxic environments through genetic mechanisms that avoid hemoglobin concentration increases and prevent polycythemia. Recently, sex differences in hemoglobin dynamics with age have been reported among Tibetan highlanders living in Tsarang. Additionally, concerns have been raised that dietary changes associated with modernization may increase the risk of polycythemia and lifestyle-related diseases among Tibetan highlanders. However, the relationship between genetic polymorphisms and the risk of lifestyle-related diseases in Tibetan highlanders has been investigated in only a few regions. This study aims to elucidate whether polymorphisms in genes related to hypoxic adaptation are associated with the incidence of lifestyle-related diseases and polycythemia and whether these polymorphisms affect hemoglobin dynamics in the residents of Tsarang, Mustang, Nepal.MethodsHealth checkup data from individuals living in Tsarang in Mustang District, Nepal, collected in 2017, were used to determine the prevalence of obesity, hypertension, diabetes, hypoxemia, and polycythemia. DNA was extracted from whole-blood samples, and data for the single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) rs13419896 (EPAS1), rs12619696 (EPAS1), and rs2790859 (EGLN1) were obtained using real-time PCR. The health checkup data were statistically analyzed to determine the associations of these diseases with polymorphisms in genes related to hypoxic adaptation.ResultsA total of 168 participants, comprising 78 males and 90 females, were included in the final analysis. In terms of the prevalence of each disease, only the prevalence of polycythemia significantly differed between sexes (p < 0.01). Additionally, among the three analyzed SNPs, significant sex differences in genotype frequency were observed for rs13419896 and rs2790859. For rs2790859 in females, Tibetan highlanders with the adaptive genotype had a significantly lower incidence of polycythemia (p < 0.01) and significantly lower hemoglobin concentrations (p < 0.01).ConclusionsThis study revealed that there are sex differences in the genotype frequency of gene-related hypoxic adaptations among the residents of Tsarang. The findings also suggested that the rs2790859 polymorphism might be involved in the recent incidence of polycythemia among Tsarang residents. If the frequency of non-Tibetan genotypes increases due to intermixing with other populations in the Mustang District, polycythemia may emerge as a modern disease. It is essential to continue investigating the health status of Mustang residents to elucidate various aspects of hypoxic adaptation and disease susceptibility.

Adaptation of Migrated Upper Mustangi People in Pokhara, Nepal

The adaptation process of migrant people from the Upper Mustang to Pokhara found a social issue. The trend of permanent and seasonal shifting was prominently observed in this study. The individual and community-level adaptation process of the in-migrants in Pokhara, and multi-ethnic societal adjustment were considerable. This research concentrated on specific ethnics of the Himalaya region of Mustang district who migrated to Pokhara and adapted in hilly ecology. The study was trying to seek the pattern of migration from the Upper Mustang their circumstance and their adaptation in Pokhara. The study area of this research was covered the migrant population in Pokhara from Lomanthang and Lo Ghekar Damodar Kunda Rural Municipalities of Upper Mustang. This study was based on a qualitative research design with interpretative research paradigm. Six informants residing in Pokhara seasonally or permanently both rural municipalities were selected representatively. For the qualitative information in-depth interview was taken with the help of a semi-structured questionnaire. Due to the climatic vulnerability, people from Upper Mustang were shifting in Pokhara permanently or seasonally for survival. The extreme cold, occasional summer rainfall, soil erosion and glacier outburst are major threats of the life security of migrants. Whereas, the common destination of migrants found Pokhara becaue favorable climate, life survival opportunities and historical legacy of socio-economic connection.

Socioeconomic Conditions of Apple Growers in Marpha, Mustang District

Socio-economic condition of the farmers plays a crucial role in agriculture. Apple is one of the key fruits with potential to generate income and employment in the high mountain districts of western Nepal. The objective of the study has to analyze the socioeconomic status of apple grower in Marpha of Mustang district. A total of 145 households have been sampled out of 235 households by using simple random sampling technique and interviewed with a semi-structured questionnaire to obtain data regarding socioeconomic condition, production, marketing channels, cost and apple price from apple growers as well as secondary sources of data obtained from the District Agriculture Development Office and Temperate Horticulture Development Center, Marpha, Mustang with other published and unpublished documents. The study concluded that socioeconomic conditions of marginal farmers have significantly improved during the last three decades because of apple farming. Seasonal road and poor marketing infrastructure, underprivileged technical knowledge, unavailability of inputs in time, insect pest damage and lack of storage facilities, price disparity and low quantity of production have been noticed major production and marketing problems in the study area.

Qualitative characteristics of cashmere fiber of Chyangra goat of Nepal

This study assesses the different physical characteristics of cashmere fiber quality in Chyangra goats as wax percentage, length of pashmina fiber, fineness (diameter) of fiber obtained from different body parts (neck, belly, and back) in different locations of Mustang district of Nepal. In mid-March to mid-April 2022, cashmere samples were collected from thirty-four unrelated animals. Twenty-two animals were sampled from Upper Mustang and twelve were sampled from Lower Mustang; of which, 22 were male and 12 were female of 1, 2, 3, 4, and greater than 4 years of age. Cashmere fiber length was measured using measuring pad and ruler and fiber diameter was analyzed using the optical projection microscope method. The fixed effect model was used to analyze the least square mean for fiber length, diameter and wax percentage of Chyangra cashmere fiber considering various factors such as location, sex and age. The overall least square mean and standard error for fiber quality parameters namely wax percentage, fiber length and fiber diameter were 9.49±2.2%, 45.97±0.14 mm and 15.36±0.19 µm respectively. Even though there is a significant difference in the considered parameters by location, the fineness and length of the fiber of both locations was within the finest fiber ranging from 13-16 µm diameter and more than 40 mm length. The present study has evidenced that Chyangra goat of Nepal can be characterized as one of the finest Cashmere goats however some management steps must be taken to improve the quality (cleanliness) of fiber and the volume of fiber production. Significant differences were found in location, sex, and trend of difference in age of the animals indicating the potential to improve cashmere quality by adopting proper management and selection methods through selection of goats with larger body size and confirmation to obtain more quantity of fiber per animal.

Economics of Potato Production in Mustang District of Nepal

Potato possesses a huge potential for production in Nepal and is a major source to ensure food and nutritional security among people of mountainous region. The study was carried out in four rural municipalities of Mustang district to assess the economics of potato production. A pre-tested semi-structured questionnaire was administered randomly to 90 different farmers. The collected data was tabulated and analysed using STATA. Potato production was identified as a profitable farming business with an average productivity of 18.95 t/ha with benefit-cost ratio of 1.59. The average per hectare total cost of production of potato was found to be Rs 660774.8 on mustang district. The study reveals that expenditure on labour wage and organic manure contributed more than three-quarters of total production cost of potato. There were no any significant differences between the different rural municipalities in terms of the total cost of production but a significant difference (1% level of significance) was observed over the production of potato per hectare. An increment in 1% cost of seeds was found to result in increase in 0.27% of income from potato production, however a diminishing return to scale (0.232) was revealed in the study. Incidence of disease and pest and price fluctuation were identified as a major constraint for potato production and marketing respectively. Timely availability of inputs, mechanization to reduce labour cost, training on advanced technology, wide coverage of agriculture extension service, and adoption of climate smart farming technologies

Determinants of the adoption of different good agricultural practices (GAP) in the command area of PMAMP apple zone in Nepal: The case of Mustang district

The study was carried out to determine the factors affecting the adoption of good agriculture practices (GAP) for apple production in the Prime-Minister Agriculture Modernization Project's (PMAMP) apple zone of Mustang district. Altogether, 100 households from Thasang and Gharapjhong rural Municipalities were chosen for the study by a stratified random sampling technique. Descriptive statistical tools, logistic regression and t-test were used to analyze the data which were collected from the semi-structured interview schedule. Out of the ten selected good agriculture practices standards, intercropping practices were adopted by the majority of respondents (83%) while the ring method of irrigation (19%) was found to be the least adopted. The magnitude of logistic regression coefficients of good agriculture practices revealed that occupation was a highly significant (p < 0.01) socio-economic variable influencing the adoption of good agriculture practices. Similarly, age, apple cultivated land, economically active population, institutional involvement, and loan for apple cultivation was also found significant (p < 0.05) for the adoption of different good agriculture practices. From the independent t-test, the productivity of apples was found significantly different between the farmers with and without: recommended nutrient management system, intercropping (p < 0.05), recommended pit dimension and irrigation interval (p < 0.10). The major problem in apple production were also identified. Based on the findings, increase in apple cultivated land, increase number of apples growing farmers, active role of institution and availability of credit to farmers are suggested to increase the adoption of different GAP in apple. The problems identified in apple production shall be prioritized to boost apple production and marketing. The policy makers and practitioners should prioritize the significant socio-economic characters and determinants in different stages of planning and implementation of program and policies.

Characterization and selection of thin-shelled walnut (Juglans regia L.) genotypes of Mustang, Nepal

Walnut (Juglans regia L.) of seedling origin creates large variability within this crop. A research study was carried out at Directorate of Agricultural Research, Lumle, Kaski and Marpha, Mustang to characterize and deciphers the variability of thin-shelled walnut for further selection, conservation and variety registration. Walnut orchard of Mustang district was surveyed in March, 2018 and 50 walnut trees were labeled according to its flowering and flushing time. 36 accessions of thin-shelled walnut were characterized on 17 different parameters regarding growth habit, bearing habit, fruit and kernel characteristics. Around 88.89% trees exhibited terminal fruiting habit and remaining showed lateral fruiting habit. Three type of tree shape was noticed as spreading round, semi-erect and erect. Huge variation in nut shape was observed having 50% trees were with circular nuts. Four types of shell strength was recorded; 11.11% accessions having papery shell, 27.78% having weak shell, 47.22% having intermediate shell and 13.88 having strong shell strength. Average nut yield of trees ranged from 15-75 kg with an average of 26.67 kg. Nut weighted from 5.96-18.99 g with an average of 11.14 g. Kernel weight ranged from 2.8-8.92 g. More than 50% shelling was recorded in 13 accessions. The kernel quality of 14 accessions (out of 36) showed 5 rank (Excellent quality); and remaining 22 accessions showed 4 rank (Good quality). Based on this characterization, 13 accessions were selected and recommended for further multiplication and variety registration.

Ascent rate and the Lake Louise scoring system: An analysis of one year of emergency ward entries for high-altitude sickness at the Mustang district hospital, Nepal.

More travellers are making swift ascents to higher altitudes without sufficient acclimatization or pharmaceutical prophylaxis as road connectivity develops in the Himalayan region of Nepal. Our study connects ascent rate with prevalence and severity of acute mountain sickness (AMS) among patients admitted to the emergency ward of the Mustang district hospital in Nepal. A register-based, cross-sectional study was conducted between June 2018 and June 2019 to explore associations of Lake Louise scores with ascent profile, sociodemographic characteristics, and comorbidities using chi-square test, t-test, and Bayesian logistic regression. Of 105 patients, incidence of AMS was 74%, of which 61%, 36%, and 3% were mild, moderate, and severe cases, respectively. In the Bayesian-ordered logistic model of AMS severity, ascent rate (odds ratio 3.13) and smoking (odds ratio 0.16) were significant at a 99% credible interval. Based on the model-derived counterfactual, the risk of developing moderate or severe AMS for a middle-aged, non-smoking male traveling from Pokhara to Muktinath (2978m altitude gain) in a single day is twice that of making the ascent in three days. Ascent rate was strongly associated with the likelihood of developing severe AMS among travellers with AMS symptoms visiting Mustang Hospital's Emergency Ward.

Climate Change and New Markets: Multi-Factorial Drivers of Recent Land-Use Change in The Semi-Arid Trans-Himalaya, Nepal

The Nepalese Mustang District is subject to profound environmental change. In recent decades, rising temperatures have been apparent, accompanied by increasing precipitation variability and a reduction in glacier extent. In a semi-arid climate, this reduces water availability and threatens irrigation-based subsidence agriculture. In addition, the region is experiencing rapid socio-economic change due to a new road connecting the former periphery to new markets downstream. This enables a higher market orientation for agricultural products and improved accessibility for tourists. In recent decades, these changes have triggered severe transformations in the local land-use systems and settlements, which are investigated in this study. Detailed on-site re-mappings of the settlements of Marpha and Kagbeni were performed based on historical maps from the early 1990s. Additionally, land-use patterns and functionality of buildings in the district capital of Jomsom and in the settlement Ranipauwa/Muktinath were mapped. For all settlements, a profound increase in cash crop (apple) cultivation can be observed since the 1990s. Recently, new cultivation practices such as intercropping have been extensively introduced as an adaptation strategy to climate extremes. Demand for different crops from the new markets downstream is causing a significant decline in local, well-established cultivation of traditional crops such as buckwheat. This corroborates with an increasing demand for freshwater for the enhanced vegetable cultivation used for inter-cropping. Simultaneously, the freshwater demands from the tourism sector are steadily increasing. In a region where water quality is deteriorating and springs are already drying up due to climate change, this will probably lead to further challenges regarding the allocation of water in the future.

Characterization of Essential Oil, Estimation of Phenolic and Flavonod Content and Biological Activities of Ephedra pachyclada BOISS

The northern areas of Nepal are rich in biodiversity and contain a large number of medicinal plant species including the Genus Ephedra of evergreen gymnosperm, belonging to the family Ephedraceae. The plants have been used by the peoples of the Himalayan region for the treatment of asthma, blood pressure, and gastritis for many years. This study was aimed for the evaluation of phytochemical, antioxidant, and antimicrobial activities of methanol, ethyl acetate, dichloromethane, and n-hexane extracts, and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GCMS) profiling of the essential oil of the aerial parts of Ephedra pachyclada Boiss from Mustang district of Nepal. Antioxidant activity was evaluated by 2,2-dipheny-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) free radical scavenging assay and antimicrobial activity by the agar well diffusion method. Total phenolics and total flavonoid content were determined by Folin-Ciocalteu and aluminum chloride colorimetric method, respectively. The methanol extract contained the highest total phenolic content of 54.42 ± 1.40 mg GAE/g followed by the ethyl acetate (46.84 ± 0.62 mg GAE/g), DCM extract (19.58 ± 0.24 mg GAE/g), and the lowest TPC was shown for n-hexane extract (5.21 ± 1.40 mg GAE/g) of the dry weight. The methanol extract showed the maximum TFC of 33.28 ± 0.48 mg QE/g, followed by ethyl acetate extract (31.73 ± 0.52 mg QE/g), DCM extract (31.64 ± 0.56 mg QE/g), and the least value was obtained for the n-hexane extract (21.44 ± 2.91 mg QE/g). The methanol extract showed the highest antioxidant activity with a half-maximal inhibitory concentration (IC50) of 37.81 ± 2.24 μg/mL. The methanol extract showed potent activity against Escherichia coli (ATCC 25922), and Staphylococcus aureus (ATCC 25923) with zones of inhibition of 13 mm and 12 mm respectively. Ethyl acetate extract showed a slight potency against Staphylococcus aureus (ATCC 25923) with a zone of inhibition of 9 mm. The essential oil contained diisooctyl phthalate (46.90%), dodecane, 2,6,11-trimethyl-(16.35%), dodecane, 4,6-dimethyl- (11.59%), tetrapentacontane (11.56%), and myrtenol (4.37) as the major compounds. The plant exhibited significant antioxidant and antimicrobial activities which could be used as the source to isolate the active natural antioxidant and antimicrobial agent as the drug candidate in the future drug discovery process.

High prevalence of rheumatoid arthritis and its risk factors among Tibetan highlanders living in Tsarang, Mustang district of Nepal

BackgroundIn Tsarang (at 3560 m), which is located in Mustang, 62.7% of the residents answered that they had a subjective medical history of arthritis, and 41.1% of the residents answered that their families had a subjective medical history of arthritis on a survey conducted in 2017. The expression of hypoxia-inducible factor (HIF) and its effects are deeply involved in hypoxic adaptation in Tibetan highlanders. At the same time, HIF is also related to the onset of rheumatoid arthritis. Therefore, the adaptive mechanism acquired by Tibetan highlanders may promote the development of rheumatoid arthritis. The prevalence of rheumatoid arthritis is estimated to be approximately 0.5–1.0% worldwide. The objective of this study was to estimate the prevalence of rheumatoid arthritis in Tsarang residents using existing diagnostic criteria and to explore its risk factors.MethodsAn epidemiological survey was conducted in Tsarang in 2019. Data obtained from anthropometry and questionnaires were statistically analyzed. Biochemical measurements using blood samples were also performed, and the results were used to assess arthritis status. Residents’ joint status was scored, and arthritis was assessed based on the clinical disease activity index and ACR/EULAR 2010 criteria.ResultsTwenty-seven males and 50 females participated in this survey. In Tsarang, ACR/EULAR 2010 classified 4.3% of males and 7.1% of females as having rheumatoid arthritis, indicating a very high estimated prevalence. We also performed a multivariate analysis to explore its risk factors, and two factors, older age (standardized parameter estimate = 4.84E−01, 95% CI = [9.19E−02, 8.76E−01], p = 0.0170) and a history of living in urban areas (standardized parameter estimate = − 5.49E−01, 95% CI = [− 9.21E−01, 1.77E−01], p = 0.0050), significantly contributed to the higher ACR/EULAR 2010 score in females. In addition, three factors, having no spouse (standardized parameter estimate = 3.17E−01, 95% CI = [5.74E−02, 5.77E−01], p = 0.0179), having a smoking habit (standardized parameter estimate = 2.88E−01, 95% CI = [1.71E−02, 5.59E−01], p = 0.0377), and a history of living in urban areas (standardized parameter estimate = − 3.69E−01, 95% CI = [− 6.83E−01, − 5.60E−02], p = 0.0219), resulted in significantly higher clinical disease activity index scores in females. Furthermore, smoking habits were found to significantly increase blood hyaluronic acid in both males (standardized parameter estimate = 6.03E−01, 95% CI = [3.06E−01, 9.01E−01], p = 0.0020) and females (standardized parameter estimate = 4.87E−01, 95% CI = [5.63E−02, 9.18E−01], p = 0.0291).ConclusionsIn this study, we evaluated the symptoms of arthritis and estimated the prevalence of rheumatoid arthritis using classification criteria for Tibetan highlanders who have adapted to the hypoxic environment and fostered their own culture. The high prevalence of rheumatoid arthritis among Tsarang residents suggests that the hypoxic adaptation mechanism involving HIF in Tibetan highlanders may promote the onset or exacerbation of rheumatoid arthritis. The high prevalence of rheumatoid arthritis among Tibetan highlanders may be related not only to the environmental factors analyzed in this study but also to hypoxic adaptation genes. Further investigation is needed to clarify the genetic factors involved.

Individual variations and sex differences in hemodynamics and percutaneous arterial oxygen saturation (SpO2) in Tibetan highlanders of Tsarang in the Mustang district of Nepal

BackgroundMany studies have indicated specific low-hemoglobin (Hb) adaptation to high altitude in the Tibetan population, but studies focusing on physiological variations within this population are limited. This study aimed to investigate the relationships between SpO2 and related factors, including individual variations and sex differences, to assess the generality of high-altitude adaptation in the Tibetan population of Tsarang.MethodsThe participants were 31 male and 41 female community-dwelling people aged ≥18 years living in Tsarang, in the Mustang district of Nepal. Height, weight, SpO2, Hb concentration, finger temperature, heart rate, and blood pressure were measured. Lifestyle information was obtained by interview.ResultsMen had significantly higher systolic blood pressure (p = 0.002) and Hb (p < 0.001) than women. There was no significant correlation between SpO2 and other parameters in men. In women, SpO2 was negatively correlated with heart rate (p = 0.036), Hb (p = 0.004), and finger temperature (p = 0.037). In multiple regression analysis, a higher SpO2 was marginally correlated with lower age (β = −0.109, p = 0.086) and higher Hb (β = 0.547, p = 0.053) in men. In women, higher SpO2 was significantly correlated with lower heart rate (β = −0.045, p = 0.036) and Hb (β = −0.341, p = 0.018). Mean hemoglobin (95% confidence interval) was 13.6 g/dl (13.1–14.0 g/dl), which is lower than that found previously in Andeans and almost equal to that in Japanese lowlanders measured using the same device. In some participants of both sexes, hemoglobin was >17.0 g/dl.ConclusionHigher SpO2 was marginally correlated with younger age and higher Hb in men and with lower heart rate and lower Hb in women. Hemoglobin concentration was similar to that found previously in lowlanders, but higher in some individuals. These results indicate individual variation and sex differences in the hemodynamics of high-altitude adaptation in Tibetan highlanders of Tsarang, as well as low-Hb adaptation to high altitude equal to that of other Tibetans.

Varied Reproductive Histories of Ethnically Tibetan Women.

The U.N. health and well-being goals for 2030 focus on maternal and child health outcomes, among others. Challenges to meeting those goals vary widely throughout Nepal owing to the range of sociocultural factors, infrastructural limitations, physical geography and altitudes. This article explores sociocultural and biological influences on fertility and child survival among ethnically Tibetan women in Nepal. This is a cross sectional study of 430 women, age 46-86 years old, citizens of Nepal and native residents above 3500m in Mustang District, who provided interview and physiological data. Univariate Poisson regression analyses selected significant variables to include in multivariate Poisson regressions investigating the number of pregnancies, livebirths, child survival and death outcomes. Earlier age at first pregnancy, later age at last pregnancy, and miscarriages associated with more pregnancies. Miscarriages and stillbirths associated with fewer livebirths. Higher maternal BMI and FEV6 associated with fewer children dying before age 15. Marital characteristics (status, type, continuity), contraceptive use, relative wealth, and education influenced these covariates. Low maternal pulmonary function and nutritional status predict poorer child survival in Upper Mustang. Addressing poor lung function and nutrition may improve reproductive outcomes among ethnically Tibetan women living at high altitude.

Study on Disaster Resilient Transportation Network for Trade and Tourism Development in Gharapjhong Rural Municipality of Mustang District Nepal

The study was conducted during the period from December 2020 to May 2021 in the Gharapjhong Rural Municipality of Mustang district in Nepal. Both primary and secondary data have been used in this study. Secondary literatures were received from various sources such as published reports, papers, thesis, database, and manuals. And, primary data were collected from the field observation, in-depth interview, focus group discussion and questionnaire survey. The study found that sustainable transportation network is essential to enhance tourism development in Mustang District. Furthermore, insufficient agricultural product, and lack of exploration of tourist sites is affecting tourism growth. Similarly, inadequate awareness among the people of the society, improper sanitation system, inadequate investment from the private sectors, unfavourable weather condition, and weak and fragile soil are the problems for development of trade and tourism. Similarly, inadequate local tourist guides, inadequate schools and health facilities, as well as incompetent representatives are also the key factors for the development of tourism industry. This study would like to suggest that the construction of adequate road network, capacity building and skill development trainings in the tourism sector should be enhanced. Similarly, sufficient advertisement on tourism area should be managed, adequate exploration of tourist sites should be conducted, and local agricultural productivity should be increased along with provision of adequate educational and health institutions, proper water and sanitation facility should be available and adequate tourist guides should be trained.

Agencies of the present: landscape-making and the herders of lower Mustang, Nepal

ABSTRACT Within the vast temporal and spatial footprints of the rangelands of Nepal’s lower Mustang district, herder landscape-making practice and agency unfold. Herders in Mustang today are at the forefront of radical change. They negotiate the complexities of declining fodder, erratic precipitation and shifting demographics through actions in the field. Yet the agencies of these herders—largely transient labourers from marginalised communities—are ignored. Through the lens of herder practices in situ, this article examines the intra-active nature of their agency and the conditions through which it is ignored and obstructed, emergent and critical to the present and possible futures. This research is part of a larger effort to demonstrate that agencies emerging from land-based practice and relations on the ground have profound importance, particularly in a development context dominated by foreign aid agencies.

Prevalence of gastrointestinal parasites in equines of Mustang District, Nepal

Abstract. Devkota RP, Subedi JR, Wagley K. 2021. Prevalence of gastrointestinal parasites in equines of Mustang District, Nepal. Biodiversitas 22: 3958-3963. The study was conducted from March 2018 to November 2018 in four villages of Mustang district to find out the prevalence of gastrointestinal parasites in equines (horses and mules). Fecal samples collected from 175 randomly selected equines (105 from horses and 70 from mules) were preserved in 2.5% potassium dichromate and microscopically examined using concentration techniques to detect ova, larvae, and oocysts of parasites. The overall prevalence of gastrointestinal parasites was found to be 84.57% with an incidence rate of 81.90% and 88.57% in horses and mules respectively. The prevalence of gastrointestinal parasites between horses and mules did not vary significantly (p&gt;0.05). Also no significant association (p&gt;0.05) between the prevalence rate of parasites and study areas was observed. Among identified parasites in horses, Strongyles showed the highest prevalence (68.57%) followed by Strongyloides spp. (23.80%), and Parascaris equorum (14.28%) and in mules Strongyles showed the highest prevalence (80.0%) followed by Parascaris equorum (35.71%), Strongyloides spp. (28.57%), and Dictyocaulus spp. (5.71%). Prevalence of gastrointestinal parasites showed no significant variation (p&gt;0.05) with respect to age and feeding status. However, the prevalence rate significantly varied (p&lt;0.05) with respect to parameters like infection status (single and mixed), housing condition and health status. The present study revealed a higher prevalence rate of gastrointestinal parasites due to poor husbandry practices and lack of adequate veterinary services. Therefore, improvement in housing and feeding system, awareness regarding effective regular deworming, and establishment of veterinary hospitals in the study areas were recommended.

Repeatability of adaptive traits among ethnic Tibetan highlanders.

Connecting traits to biological pathways and genes relies on stable observations. Researchers typically determine traits once, expecting careful study protocols to yield measurements free of noise. This report examines that expectation with test-retest repeatability analyses for traits used regularly in research on adaptation to high-altitude hypoxia, often in settings without climate control. Two hundred ninety-one ethnic Tibetan women residing from 3500 to 4200 m in Upper Mustang District, Nepal, provided three observations of hemoglobin concentration, percent of oxygen saturation of hemoglobin, and pulse by noninvasive pulse oximetry under conditions designed to minimize environmental noise. High-intraclass correlation coefficients and low within-subject coefficients of variation reflected consistent measurements. Percent of oxygen saturation had the highest intraclass correlation coefficient and the smallest within-subject coefficient of variability; measurement noise occurred mainly in the lower values. Hemoglobin concentration and pulse presented slightly higher within-subject coefficients of variation; measurement noise occurred across the range of values. The women had performed the same measurements 7 years earlier using the same devices and protocol. The sample means and SD observed across 7 years differed little. Hemoglobin concentration increased substantially after menopause. Analyzing repeatability features of traits may improve our interpretation of statistical analyses and detection of variation from measurement or biology. The high levels of measurement repeatability and biological stability support the continued use of these robust traits for investigating human adaptation in this altitude range.

High mountain community in a changing climate: a study of agropastoral adaptation in mustang district, Nepal

This paper explores the changing climate, its impact, and the diversified practices of agropastoral adaption by a mountain community of Nepal. The findings reveal that there is an unswerving link between the changes in climate and their impact on the community and its adaptation options. The vulnerability and risk induced by the climate change has threatened the agropastoral subsistence, the sociocultural and economic structure, and the food sovereignty of the Loba community of Mustang district of Nepal and made them experience unanticipated complications in livelihood. In a changing climate, the community has attuned and restructured its adaptive strategy with diversified practices of collective labour in a traditional agropastoral system of landholding, mystical connectivity and seasonal relocation as an adaptive response ensuring the shared sustenance of the com munity. The challenge of climate change began long ago; it will persevere and be long- lasting. Hence, this paper argues for the need for a prudent adoption of measures to maintain an environmentally suitable agropastoral system of liveli hood well-being. Beyond enhancing community capacity and climate resilience, it is necessary to streamline and readjust indigenous sociocultural institutions by expanding their adaptive capacity, while recognizing the cultural dimensions grounded in systems of meanings and relationships and the way people and their culture experience and respond to exceptional climatic changes.

Distributional evidence and threats to cheer pheasant (Catreus wallichii) in Annapurna Conservation Area, Nepal

Cheer pheasant, a vulnerable species in the pheasant family, Phasianidae, is found distributed through the southern foothills of the Himalayas from Pakistan to Nepal. In Nepal, it has been recorded from few areas including the Annapurna Conservation Area (ACA) in central Nepal. However, no systematic survey has been conducted on this shy species in the ACA since 2010. Thus, this study represents a general picture of cheer pheasant distribution and potential threats in Lete and Kunjo Rural Municipalities of Mustang district within the ACA by establishing vantage points in different locations. Among ten vantage stations, cheer pheasants were detected from all stations in Kunjo but only from three stations in Lete. The major threats to the species were found to be overgrazing, habitat fragmentation and hunting/snaring. For the effective conservation of cheer pheasants, a conservation program should be promptly formulated and implemented in Mustang district.

Economics of production and marketing of apple (Malus domestica) in Mustang, Nepal

A study was carried out to assess the production and marketing status of apple in the Mustang district of Nepal in 2019. A total of 100 households were sampled by using simple random sampling technique and interviewed with a pre-tested semi-structured questionnaire. Descriptive statistics and independent-sample t-test was used for data analysis using SPSS and MS-Excel. Farmers were categorized into small farmers (n=68) and large farmers (n=32) based on the number of apple trees grown by farmers. The average area under apple cultivation was 6.64 ropani (0.3378 hactares). The overall average apple production was 2848 kg (2.84 Mt) and the large farmers had more apple production (7035 kg) as compared to small farmers (877 kg). The average annual household income from apple was NRs. 29,868 (248.90 USD). Apple farming was found to be a profitable farm enterprise with a benefit-cost ratio of 1.84. Two marketing channel was identified in the study area and Channel II was found more profitable. Education status of household head, ethnicity, number of economically active family members, experience on apple farming and visit of extension worker to apple farms were the significant factors that positively affected the production and marketing of apple. The satisfaction level of farmers from production and marketing of apple was found very poor (79%). Unavailability of inputs, lack of storage facilities, insect pest damage, poor technical knowledge and infrastructure were major production problems. Similarly, price variation, poor marketing infrastructure and linkage, high postharvest loss, poor bargaining power and low volume of production were the major marketing problems.