Muslim Rule Research Articles

Mkrtičʻ Nałaš: An Armenian Bishop as Pillar of the Aqquyunlu State?

Although the fifteenth century CE has commonly been recognized as a crucial saddle period in both the history of the Armenian church and the administrative history of the Middle East, which is largely focused on Muslim rulers before the Ottoman-Safavid confrontation, the two topics are usually approached separately. To bridge this gap, the present contribution examines three pivotal moments in the tenure of the Armenian bishop, painter, and poet Mkrtičʻ Nałaš (d. after 1469 CE) in Diyarbakır to argue that his career was inextricably entangled with the trajectory of the Aqquyunlu “Turkmen” rulers who were establishing Diyarbakır as a regional center at the time. Accordingly, I suggest that we should see the processes of Aqquyunlu state formation as including members of the Armenian clerical elite such as Mkrtičʻ Nałaš. I propose to use the concept of synchronisms to reflect the joint and entangled agency of multiple individuals and interpersonal networks of mobilization and patronage. This concept enables the description of entanglements and linkages without attributing primacy to any of the involved parties. I argue that the synchronisms linking Mkrtičʻ Nałaš and early Aqquyunlu rulers of Diyarbakır demonstrate that the histories of Christian clerical elites and the histories of the Muslim etatist and administrative configurations they inhabited must be told together.

Indian Frontier in the Samanid Period Based on a New Source

The article introduces a previously unknown Arabic source detailing the preparations for a battle between local Muslim rulers, likely vassals of the Samanids (204–395/819–1005), against the ruler of Ghaznī and his allies, the Hindushahs, near Ghaznī in the mid-fourth/tenth century. By closely reading, translating, and analyzing this manuscript fragment, I aim to shed light on the political realities of the Indian frontier of the Islamic world before the establishment of the Ghaznavid state (366–583/977–1186). The fragment provides evidence of the clashes among different actors, both Muslim and non-Muslim, in the region that makes up present-day eastern Afghanistan during the pre-Ghaznavid period, especially the fourth/tenth century. Moreover, it highlights the significance of the river valleys of Bāmiyān and Ghūrwand, along with the upper Hilmand’s course, as a frontier region where the Samanids and their vassals sought to expand the influence of Islam and Samanid suzerainty by pushing southward.

The Titular War of the Moscow State with the Grand Duchy of Lithuania at the Turn of the 16th – 17th Centuries: Communication and Pragmatic Aspect

Purpose. The struggle for the royal title recognition was one of priorities in the foreign policy of the Moscow State in diplomatic relations with the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (GDL) at the turn of the 16th – 17th centuries. The purpose of the article is to identify the communication and pragmatic features of the controversy about the title «tsar» betweenthe Russian monarch Boris Godunov and the Lithuanian ambassadors, which was preserved in the documents of the embassy of the GDL’s Chancellor Lew Sapieha to Moscow (1600–1601).Results. The main communication strategy of Boris Godunov in obtaining the recognition of the royal title was ration-al argumentation: succession by the right of inheritance and conquest, recognition by Christian and Muslim rulers, observance of the necessary rituals and diplomatic protocol. However, the key arguments of the Russian monarch were regarded by the Lithuanian side as a manipulative influence attempt, since they did not have sufficient documentary and factual confirmation. In turn, Lithuanian ambassadors also used verbal manipulation: deliberate substitution of the meaning of words, appeal to «God’s justice» and opponent’s emotions.Conclusion. Despite the failure to achieve recognition of the royal title, the analyzed polemics played an important role in the development of Russian diplomatic communication, since: 1) it let clearly formulate the official position of the Russian government and systematize relevant arguments in favor of the royal title, 2) stimulated the search for new communication strategies and tactics to legitimize the royal title in foreign policy relations with the GDL.

Kaviraj Gangadhar Roy: Catalyst of Ayurveda’s revival in the 19th century

Abstract Kaviraj Gangadhar Roy was a prominent figure in the nineteenth century who played a crucial role in revitalizing Ayurveda, which had been neglected during Muslim rule. His significant contributions include founding the Gangadhar Niketan in Murshidabad, which marked the beginning of the “Gangadhar Era,” which restored Ayurveda’s importance in the nation. His commentary on the Charak Samhita titled “Jalpakalpataru” is highly regarded for its innovative insights into Ayurvedic philosophy. He authored 76 books covering Ayurveda and Sanskrit literature, which enriched the field and attracted many scholars, including Dwarakanath Sen and Pareshnath Sen. The influence of his teachings reached cities like Jaipur, Haridwar, Varanasi, and Delhi, demonstrating his lasting legacy in shaping modern Ayurvedic practices. This brief overview highlights Kaviraj Gangadhar Roy’s crucial role in the revival of Ayurveda and the significant impact of his disciples on the field.

“Superiority is due to us, and the king should come from among us”: The Arab Conquests and Conflicts of the Early Umayyad Era in a 7th-Century Syriac Universal History of Yoḥannān bar Penkāyē

Abstract The last few decades have seen considerable interest in non-Muslim sources that contain material on the earliest stage of Islam. This paper examines one such witness, The Book of the Main Points by Yoḥannān bar Penkāyē, a 7th-century Syriac universal history, that provides an account of the Arab conquests, the first decades of the Umayyad caliphate, with a special focus on the events of the Second Fitna. The paper includes a commentary on selected passages from the History concerning the conquests and early Muslim rule, a comparative study of Syriac Christian sources on the Second Fitna, and a lexico-historical sketch of the phenomenon of the šurṭa (slaves and prisoners of war) fighting on the side of al-Muḫtār during the Second Fitna.

History and practices on the magnanimity and sanctity of diet

From prehistoric hunter-gatherer societies to the sophisticated gastronomy of medieval royal courts, the evolution of Indian food culture underscores the integral role of food in sustaining life and fostering communal bonds. Beginning with the ancestral legacies where food was regarded as a divine gift fostering communal eating and social cohesion, this article explores the progression of food culture through the lens of historical epochs such as the Harappan civilization, Vedic period, Mauryan and Gupta periods, and the influences of Dravidian culture, Muslim rulers, and European colonization. The article highlights the pivotal role of Prana, the life force in digestion, as described in texts such as the Chandogya-Upanishad, and the impact of food on mental purity and vitality. It examines the classification of food in the Bhagavad Gita based on its effects on the Gunas (qualities), emphasizing the preference for Sattvika foods that promote longevity and happiness. The Manusmritiunderscores the cosmic significance of food offerings, linking human actions to natural elements and divine beings. The practice of Annadanam (the giving of food) is extolled as one of the highest forms of charity, reflecting a universal ethos of generosity and hospitality. The comprehensive review underscores the holistic understanding of the sanctity of food within the intricate fabric of Indian culture, intertwining spiritual beliefs, ethical considerations, and communal practices that have shaped culinary traditions and societal norms over millennia.

Ibn Khaldūn's reception in colonial South Asia

AbstractScholars commenting on the reception of the historian and theorist ‘Abd al-Raḥmān Ibn Khaldūn (1332–1406) in modern South Asia have held that it was orientalists and Westernised intellectuals rather than indigenous intellectuals who popularised him in the region. Contesting these impressions, I argue that local intellectuals displayed their agency in using the historian's work to respond to various crises of colonial modernity. They read, translated, and appropriated Ibn Khaldūn to seek inspiration for modern Muslim nationalism, as validation for sectarian convictions and the rhetoric of Islamic reform, and to resist colonial and Hindu revivalist narratives of despotic Muslim rule in India.

Exploring the Enigma of Maristans in Muslim-Ruled Kashmir.

Kashmir's oldest Neolithic settlement dates back to 3000 BC. It stood as the centre of Buddhism and Hinduism for centuries, till the arrival of Islam in thirteenth century. Although Muslims ruled Kashmir under different empires for about four centuries and ever since there has always been a significant Muslim populace in Kashmir with or without Muslim rule, yet the literature about the history of health care in Kashmir and particularly the history about Muslim contributions to healthcare is sparingly limited. This paper aims at a) historical contextualization of healthcare in Kashmir, b) finding Muslim rulers` contributions if any to the healthcare system and c) exploring places of healing 'shafa-khanas' in Kashmir. In order to achieve these objectives, the methods used were data collection through locating key historical resources, by searching local libraries and bookshops and searching online academic databases, thereafter, subjecting the collected data to thematic analysis. Three themes emerged during data analysis, which corresponds to the objectives of this paper, these are a) 'Historical context of healthcare in Kashmir', b) 'Muslim contributions to healthcare in Kashmir' and c) 'Places of healing 'Shafa-khanas' in Kashmir'. The analysis shows that healthcare during Muslim rule was integrative, progressive, robust, indigenous, specialized, and efficient/accommodative. We conclude that though 'shafa-khanas' existed in medieval Kashmir, there is however not much literature available.

The concept of tolerance in Islam and its practical implementation

The relevance of the study is related to the study of the concept of tolerance in Islam. Despite the large number of works on this topic, there is no clear definition of tolerance either in the Quran or in the Sunnah, which sets a broad framework for interpretation. At the same time, the general scientific definition of tolerance is not suitable because it does not exclude the complete acceptance of the opponent’s position, which is not applicable not only to Islam, but also to other Abrahamic religions. The postulate of freedom of religion remains unchanged in accordance with verse 2:256/ Moreover the papers provides some situational examples from the life of the Prophet Muhammad and Muslim rulers, who used tolerance as a tool of interaction and influence on the non-Muslim population and protecting the religious consciousness of Muslims from other beliefs and ideologies.

Факторы доверия и недоверия в общественном сознании молодого поколения дагестанцев религиозным институтам

The Islamic renaissance, the increased role of the confessional component in modern Dagestani so-ciety, the orientation towards religious postulates characteristic of Dagestani population and their introduction into public consciousness requires an analysis of the presence/absence of trust in reli-gious institutions. The realities indicate that the population adheres to the provisions of Islamic teachings in a personal model of behavior in various spheres (family, marriage, political, economic, ethical). The article analyzes the level of trust in spiritual institutions, in this context, the republican Muftiate, existing in the public consciousness of the younger generation of Dagestanis. Gender, age, and educational differences are shown in demonstrating trust in and distrust of the Muftiate. The empirical material obtained indicates the presence of a high level of trust in the Muftiate in the pub-lic consciousness of the Dagestani youth surveyed. Through the prism of attitudes towards religion, analytics states the difference in the attitudes of respondents by type of religiosity: an overwhelming majority of those who associate as convinced believers and believers demonstrate trust, unlike the sub-masses of waverers, non-believers and convinced non-believers. The “control question” on the basis of distrust of the republican Muftiate shows that the younger generation of Dagestanis consid-er the destructive role of this organization in religious life, the opposition of Dagestani Muslims, which contributed to the intra-Islamic split and groundless accusations of “undesirable persons of Wahhabism and Salafism” to be the main reason for its existence. The material confirming a high degree of trust in the religious institute among the young Dagestanis interviewed is a natural result of the Muftiate’s active efforts, which consist in the introduction of Islamic postulates into the mass consciousness. In particular, there is an active participation of Islamic clerics in the political and ed-ucational processes of contemporary Dagestani society. The activity of religious persons, the latent imposition of a model of relationships based on Muslim rules, may, firstly, destabilize Dagestani so-ciety, and secondly, form the principles of religious intolerance therein.

Christian European Travelers' Views on Nawab Bahawal Khan III, the Muslim Ruler of Bahawalpur State

This article delves into the unique perspective of Christian European travelers on Nawab Bahawal Khan III, offering direct insights into their views on the Muslim ruler of Bahawalpur State. Other sources fail to provide a comprehensive portrayal of Nawab Bahawal Khan III's personality. These travelers encountered the nawab at various times and documented their observations about his personality, court, habits, and way of speaking in their travel accounts. Despite the predominant motive of British travelers being missionary work during that era, they surprisingly held favorable opinions about the nawab. While these travelers did forge political connections, their underlying agenda also included the propagation of Christianity. Hence, it is intriguing to note their positive opinions about a Muslim local ruler along with his generosity and delightful hospitality.

The Eroding Significance of Bahawalpur State's Time-Honored Defence Structure: A Case Study of Marot Fort under British Protectorate

The Fort of Marot served as a guardian along the northern frontier of Rajhistan, emblematic of Rajput's authority and resilience. It changed hands several times before coming under the stewardship of the Muslim rulers of Bahawalpur State, who also maintained it meticulously. However, with the onset of colonial dominance and the shift in defense strategies due to the region becoming a British protectorate, Marot, like many other contemporary defense structures, lost its prominence as a formidable border guardian. Instead, it saw a transition to a role primarily as a customs collection center and caravan hub. This article seeks to chronicle the historical and archaeological importance of a particular site, tracing its relevance through various ruling regimes. It aims to delve into the site's potential, the evolution of its functionality, and its role in shaping power dynamics across different eras. The chronological exploration will culminate with the period of British intervention, highlighting how the British control over the defense and trade of Bahawalpur State as a result of their trade treaty of 1833 and defense treaty of 1838, when Bahawalpur’s inclusion in the British Protectorate, led to the diminishing significance of these defense structures.

The Dutch Language in the Muslim World (1600-1800)

ABSTRACT There was much contact between the Dutch Republic and Muslim world in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. The Dutch East India Company (VOC) (1602-1799) undertook extensive commercial activity in the Indian Ocean and Indonesian archipelago, where many Muslims lived. The VOC established trading posts in Bengal, across the Indian sub-continent, in Persia, the Yemen, and at its headquarters in the East Indies at Batavia. Whilst people in these areas practised several religions including Buddhism, Hinduism, and Christianity, most of these areas had significant Muslim populations, often with Muslim rulers. I am undertaking a project to analyse who spoke and wrote Dutch to whom and when in the Muslim world in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Given the scale of the Muslim world, it will be useful to divide it into two parts: one that focuses on the Indonesian archipelago and another on other countries with Muslim populations. This article examines what the second part of this project might look like, mapping out the form and content of a project on contact between Dutch and languages spoken in the Muslim world in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.

SULTANATE PERIOD: A BRIEF ESTIMATION OF BENGALI LITERATURE

The materialization of Sultanate rule over Bengal territory by the onset of thirteen century marked a new sketch on socio-cultural life of native people. For the first time, dominated Hindu society encountered a new wind of Muslim rule, which gradually made a socio-cultural cocktail for both communities. Obviously due to this shift, the Bengali literature received a new sway under new political set up. Under the Influence of contemporary socio-political thoughts, the theme, pattern, volume and expression of Bengali literature progressively got new line. Consequently, there certain streamline became as new trends for the Bengali literature that clearly distinct from the earlier times. Simply, this paper has made an endeavor to investigate the trend and the line of changes that had been taken place in Bengali literature during sultanate rule in India.

Indic Education in Pre-Colonial India

School education in pre-colonial India was universal and inclusive. Children of every caste and class, at an average age of 5 years, attended schools. The elementary school teaching consisted of three universal subjects: akshara (script) gyan, bhasha (language) gyan and arithmetic. The fourth subject varied from regions to regions: it was moral–civic education to skill education. The education was in the mother tongue. The higher education was in medium of Sanskrit. After the arrival of Muslim rulers, Persian became the alternative language of instruction, and there was a change in the course curriculum. The Muslim students were compulsorily taught the Quran, and the medium of instruction was Persian. Students interested in higher academics and research had wide number of subjects to study—grammar, philosophy, medicine and others. These students were called Brahmins, and based on their professional skills, they were designated as acharyas, upadhyaya, mukhopadhyay and so forth. The technical skills and the knowledge required constant upgradation as India was the hub of the pre-colonial economy, the ‘land of desire’. This knowledge and skill had also made her the ‘land of wisdom’. That’s how Hegel used to address about India in his class rooms in 1820s in Germany.

Harmony of Combining of Architectural Ideas: Light Oculus and Stalactite Muqarnas Tent

The origin of the common type of overlap of the Armenian monastic fore-churches or narthex (zhamatun or gavit) – a stone muqarnas tent with a light oculus at the top – has not yet been fully disclosed. Denying the absolute autochthonous nature of this architectural idea, the author of the article develops a point of view about the transformation by Armenian architects of the form of a brick tent, known from the mausoleums of Muslim rulers, which were built since the 11th century in Mesopotamia and Syria. At the same time, the rich local context of the early forms of the high tent with an oculus and the architectural compositions associated with it are analysed anew. At the same time, in 1038 in the Horomos monastery the king Hovhannes Smbat Bagratuni has constructed the multi-column zhamatun with eight-side tent and an oculus. Intended for the repose of the king, this zhamatun could embody in its architecture both the forms of a residential building and, to a greater extent, the idea represented in Rotunda of the Holy Sepulchre. Since the second half of the 12th century, when many monastic vestibules were built, about a dozen such structures with a stalactite tent were also erected. It seems acceptable that in the process of creative processing of the idea of Muslim tents, Armenian architects embodied their formal features in the stone structure of the false vault, preserving the traditional light oculus for the local culture. Identified with the divine light, the stream looked spectacular against the background of a stalactite sculptural form resembling a cave. The key role in the creation of a new type of tent in the monastic buildings could be played by the masters of the Ani school of architecture.

অসাম্প্রদায়িক বাংলাদেশ প্রতিষ্ঠায় সুফি ভাবধারার প্রভাব

The Sufi Saints played an important role to preach Islam in Bangladesh as well as South Asia. There are a lot of evidences about Shahaba (Companions of Prophet Sm.) came South Asia and Bangladesh for spreading Islam in the 7th Century. Next Centuries, hundreds of Sufis and their followers came for preaching Islam and spread over across the South Asia. Their excellent characteristics, strong morality, devotion, deep sense of humanity and serve to the poor people attracted non-Muslim people of this region. Generosity, equality and rich Islamic culture inspired local people to embrace new religion Islam. Interaction of South Asian Culture and Islamic Culture made a new dimension of Culture and Ethics in the Society. In Indian Society, Caste System of the Hindu, oppress to Subaltern people and humiliating abolished gradually. Even though, Reform movement of Hinduism and eradicate aristocracy system of the Hindu Society has started to free from Islamic influence. Education system opened for all during the Sultanate period in India. A new dimension of society and culture make amicable relations between the Hindu and Muslim of South Asia as well as Bangladesh. This Religious co-existing and harmony made South Asia a new mentality which called Communal Harmony. Non-Sectarian ideology inspired Muslim rulers to govern their territory. The Sufism and Sufi saints helped the rulers to make communal Harmony in the society. Communal harmony and social consistency were the vital roles of Muslim era in South Asia. In Nineteenth Century, rise of Sufi Saint and spiritual leader Mowlana Sayed Ahamed Ullah Mizbhandari (k.) (1826—1906) influenced society vividly. His philosophy and Mizbhandari Tariqa Played an important role in the Politics, Society and Culture of Bangladesh. Specially seven Ushal system, Mizbhandari mystic songs and no- Communal ideology inspired all sorts of peoples like the Hindu and Muslim. This research paper examines the influence of the Mizbhandari and other Sufi Tariqa in preaching Islam, Politics, Society and Culture of Bangladesh and South Asia. It also assesses any role of Sufism and Sufis thought to make non- Communal and moderate Bangladesh.

The Execution of Family Law Court Rulings in Jewish Communities in Tunisia and Libya in the Early Twentieth Century: The Challenge of Enforcement Without Sustenance Ronel Atia

The article examines the enforcement of verdicts by Jewish courts in two early entiethcentury Jewish communities: in Tunisia, particularly the capital city of Tunis, as it transitioned from Muslim rule to an European protectorate, and in Libya during the last years of the Ottoman Empire. It analyzes three documents that reflect the ways in which various Jewish courts handled cases related to family law and used sanctions to uphold Jewish law. The situations described in these documents raise questions about the Jewish courts’ authority to execute judgments in matters under their immediate jurisdiction. This article may provide a basis for the study of similar issues in other Jewish communities in the Ottoman Empire and in other periods throughout history.

Female Monastic Patronage in Medieval Georgia: Queen Tamar and Her Monastery in Tighva

Tighva Monastery was founded by Queen Consort Tamar, the daughter of David the Builder, a famous Georgian king who succeeded in uniting the country and making it a dominant regional power. According to the written sources, Tamar was married to Shah Manuchehr III, the Muslim ruler of Shirvan (modern Azerbaijan) around 1111, in order to “rule over Shirvan”. Tamar lived and reigned in the Muslim court for more than twenty years. Resulting from a need to secure a retirement home and final resting place, she initiated the construction of Tighva Monastery soon after her return to Georgia in the 1140s. As her husband Manuchehr died in 1160, it seems that Tamar left Shirvan still a married woman, for unknown reasons. Tamar cut ties with her family and spent the remainder of her life as a nun in Tighva. The Church of the Crucifixion in Tighva Monastery, which represents the main focus of this paper, gives a good example of how the place occupied by women during the Divine Liturgy not only indicated their social status, but also determined their visibility, demonstrating how architecture could be used to establish the limits of physical appearance of royal women in the twelfth century Georgian monastic space.

Bukhar Khadat: the Princes of Bukhara Until the Year 301 AH / 913 AD

Objectives: This study aims to highlight the political significance of the Bukhara Khadat by translating their biographies, detailing their rule duration, their involvement in historical events, and their relationship with Arab rule after the conquest of Bukhara in the year 90 AH. It also examines their interactions with Arab Muslim rulers and their political and economic standing.
 Methods: The study employs a descriptive analytical approach that analyzes historical narratives and links them to significant historical events. The family's history is meticulously examined, primarily relying on Al-Narshakhi's "The History of Bukhara," completed in 358 AH (968 AD). This information is used to analyze the family's history in the context of recent historical events.
 Results: The study reveals that the Bukhara Khadat lineage held authority in Bukhara until 301 AH (913 AD). They played a vital role in the city's development, contributing to its urban and economic growth. They even minted coins bearing their images. Following the Arab conquest, the Bukhara Khadat collaborated with the conquerors, fostering amicable relations. They actively participated in the city's political and economic administration, assimilating into the Arab-Islamic culture.
 Conclusions: The study covers the biographies and rule periods of the nine rulers who governed Bukhara. It also explores the historical events they experienced and participated in alongside the Abbasid caliphate. Their political role ended with the accession of Samanid Prince Ismail and the integration of Bukhara into the Samanid emirate in 301 AH (913 CE).