Muslim-majority Societies Research Articles

Islamophobia as a Phenotypical Racism: The Case of the Islamic Style of Clothing in Turkey

There are many more debates about Islamophobia’s racist dispositions in a Muslim-majority society, but the way these dispositions are exercised would be better studied if the fundamental causes were addressed first. Any form of racism can be defined as premeditated acts of degradation, humiliation, and hatred that occur in the context of everyday or regular actions. In previous centuries, racism was limited to phenotypic characteristics such as skin color, hair color, and eye color, but in today’s age of image, phenotypes have been transformed into body extensions such as clothing, resulting in a new type of “racial bias” directed at those who appear to be different from the rest of society. Turkey stands out above many other Muslim countries in terms of culture, traditions, and history, as one of the few superpowers to have ruled over a vast territory without being colonized at any point in its history. The transition from the Ottoman Empire to the Turkish Republic, the social fabric was forced to transform into a new pattern. By showing, representing, and projecting Islam as a specter of reactionary forces, it was alleged it may be eradicated from people’s daily lives. Islam was labelled a public enemy, along with anything that reminded people of it; women were singled out for their outer clothing standards. The self-proclaimed emancipators were able to save and free women from their oppressors by portraying them as meek and backward. Some people in Muslim-majority nations may be treated differently solely because of their phenotypical physical distinctions, which could be termed racism and eventually lead to Islamophobia.

The Entanglement of Secularism and Feminism in Pakistan

AbstractIn many Muslim-majority societies, including Pakistan, liberal progressive subjects who espouse feminism and gender equality do so through the language of universal human rights and political secularism. This brings them into conflict not only with anti-secular rightwing conservatives within their own societies but also with progressive scholarly critics of secularism in other contexts. To clear the space for a nuanced understanding of feminist secularism in Pakistan, the author examines a unique style of politics that may be described as “secular” among middle-class Muslim women interviewed by the author in Karachi and Islamabad. She argues that the espousal of secularism by feminists as a political cultural discourse in South Asia can initiate a politics that challenges hegemonic notions of self, community, and nation that are gaining strength in Pakistan. This position militates against simplistic understandings of secular feminism in this Muslim-majority society as the politics of colonized subjects or as a hegemonic nexus for reproducing the discursive power of Eurocentric and universalist discourses.

Teaching in a Polarized Islamic Society: A Phenomenological Study of the Christian School Teachers in the Gujrat City

The Islamic Republic of Pakistan is also home to other religious minorities. Since Independence, these minorities have played a significant role in serving the nation through different professions, and teaching is one of them. Yet, there is a growing concern regarding how well and respectfully they are accommodated in a Muslim majority society. This phenomenological research study explores the perspectives of Christian teachers concerning their difficulties in dealing with students and parents of different religions and their support needs. Ten teachers were purposively selected for semi-structured interviews. Content analysis revealed that although most teachers were satisfied with working conditions and the behaviors of students and parents with them, few of them highlighted the issues of forced conversion to Islam and usage of derogatory language. Teachers also suggested that there is a need to change the mindset of the people through education, and the government should provide more opportunities to minorities.

Discriminated in Society and Marginalized in Media: Social Representation of Christian Sanitary Workers in Pakistan

ABSTRACT Sanitary workers are globally marginalized both in media and society. Such discrimination is often amplified when such essential workers belong to a religious minority in Muslim majority societies such as Pakistan. Drawing from the frameworks of social representation and social identity theories, this study uses the qualitative method of in-depth interviews with 30 Christian sanitary workers to shed light on the perception of representation of Christian sanitary workers in Pakistan's mainstream media. Upon analyzing the data, three distinct themes emerge: (a) a lack of mainstream media representation, (b) excessive negative media representation, and (c) cognizance of the effects such representation yields. This investigation revealed that sanitary workers believe that they do not have any representation in Pakistan's mainstream media to voice their issues. Moreover, they have serious reservations about their polemic social representation and voice concerns regarding the media that often amplify such depictions. Despite being less educated, the respondents in the study appear to understand the influence of media in a democratic and multicultural society. Therefore, they expect traditional media to highlight their genuine issues (i.e., joblessness, health-related problems, and fair treatment in society), all of which, in their view, can make their life a lot easier.

Islamophobia as Cultural Racism: The Case of Islamic Attire in Turkey

Grasping the various aspects of Islamophobia in Muslim societies requires much finer methods in order to decipher the intentions of the actors in distinctive life situations varying from the media to education. This article engages in a debate as to whether Islamophobia is a new type of racism, i.e., cultural, geographical, phenotypical, or Xeno-racism, and the relatively recent type that has emerged in neo-liberal states: anti-Muslim racism. In a Muslim-majority society, the ‘culture’ of members is fairly homogenous, so Islamophobia takes another cue, focusing on external markers, like the headscarf or beard. While anti-Muslim racism is sometimes exercised along more subtle lines of cultural difference in Muslim societies, it prevails through old-fashioned, phenotypical racism. The representation or rather misrepresentation of Islam and/or Muslims in the media can be understood as the prevailing source of antagonism between the secular and the traditionalist segments of Turkish society; indeed, Turkish media representation produces and reproduces a racialization of the majority, predominately by rendering Islam invisible, or by depicting Muslims in ways that denigrate their clothing, manners, style, and way of living across various mass media forms.

Trapped within ideological wars: Femininities in a Muslim society and the contest of women as leaders

AbstractThis paper analyzes the discursive contestation among online news media about women in leadership roles within a Muslim majority society, Indonesia. Indonesian women have established a substantial leadership role in which the “ideal” modern woman has been the image of “wanita karir,” a commingling of various Indonesian feminist discourses and Western (post)feminist discursive formations. Despite the progress, women's leadership in Indonesia has recently been challenged by reactionary Islamist forces. Using a critical poststructural discourse perspective, we identify a range of four forms of femininity and female leadership in Indonesian online media that reside at the intersections of competing discourses. This paper offers two areas of contributions. First, we identify the leadership challenges faced by women in a South‐East Asian context, in particular within a democratic Muslim society like Indonesia. Second, we contribute to the theorization of women's leadership challenges from the perspective of femininity construction. In particular, we want to emphasize the notion of the multiplicity of discourses in shaping femininities. In doing so, we demonstrate the permutability, transformability, and adaptability of gender discrimination in our identified forms of femininity, and the limitations of the virtuous burden imposed by apparently supportive discourse.

The Canonization of Nahj al‑Balāgha between Najaf and Ḥilla: Sistani and the Iconic Authority of the Marājiʿ

Despite the relatively narrow construction of their authority in substantive law, there is ample evidence from which to conclude that the marājiʿ wield authority in other realms too. While much of the scholarship on the marjaʿiyya has focused on their political authority in Muslim-majority societies, their status as cultural icons is arguably more important for understanding their global influence. This article examines how marājiʿ use their "iconic authority" to shape canons. In particular, it focuses on a recent statement by al-Sayyid ʿAlī al-Ḥusaynī al-Sīstānī that describes Nahj al-balāgha as an explanation of the meanings of the Quran. It is argued that, by seeking to organize and regulate reading practices, al-Sīstānī's statement contributes to the canonization of Nahj al-balāgha. To fully appreciate the significance of al-Sīstānī's statement, however, one needs to situate it within the history of the text. I argue that the School of Ḥilla is an excellent vantage point from which to view the history of the canonization of Nahj al-balaghah because it can be considered the formative period of Imāmī tradition in important respects. Evidence from the School of Ḥillah confirms that Nahj al-balāghah played a role in the organization and representation of Imāmī tradition, but there is little evidence of the notion that it is an explanation of the meanings of the Quran. Drawing upon J. Z. Smith's classic treatment of canon, I conclude that the novelty of this view is further evidence that Nahj al-balāgha is canonical.

Introduction: sectarianisation in Southeast Asia and beyond

ABSTRACT This collection expands the sectarianisation thesis introduced by Hashemi and Postel to analyse cases of sectarianism outside of the Middle East. It shows how divisions and rivalries can occur between Muslim groups that are theologically and religiously similar, rather than being intrinsically distinct from each other like Sunni and Shia sects. The collection features case studies from Indonesia, Malaysia, and Turkey and shows how sectarianism among Sunni Muslim groups is largely driven by political considerations: to promote regime survival (in both authoritarian and democratic contexts) and patronage; to protect established national narratives on Muslim identity; and to gain civic affirmation to increase the influence and membership of a group. Collectively, the contributions provide theoretical and empirical insights into the process of sectarianisation that may lead to better understanding of the multi-dimensionality of sectarian identity across Muslim-majority societies.

Directive vs. Non-directive Clinical Approaches: Liberation Psychology and Muslim Mental Health

Liberation psychology (LP) is a psychological framework that emphasizes social justice as a key component of mental health, defined in LP as the ability of human beings to co-exist, live in harmony, and thrive in community. Muslim mental health as a clinical focus continues to develop, and most writing emphasizes the importance of cultural sensitivity in providing effective care for Muslims, which the literature often relates to the collectivistic nature of Muslim majority societies. The literature, in turn, often uses collectivistic tendencies and research to support 1-on-1 directive approaches.
 This paper questions the use of such directive approaches as potentially re-creating a model of hierarchy and dominance that is connected to Muslims’ mental health challenges, particularly those of Muslim sub-populations. The authors suggest and discuss several LP-based alternatives, especially the use of group therapy as a more appropriate and culturally responsive model, from both di-rective and non-directive clinical orientations.

THEORETICAL REVIEW OF ISLAMIC LEGAL SOURCES ACCORDING TO THE MISREPRESENTATION THEORY OF HALLAQ

The existence of Islamic law from time to time in a Muslim community is believed to be the result of an in-depth study of the sources of Islamic law: the Qur’an (the Word of God), Hadith (sayings of the Prophet Muhammad), Ijtihad (the process of making a legal decision by independent interpretation of the legal sources, the Qur’an and the Sunnah), Qiyas (the deduction of legal prescriptions from the Qur’an or Sunnah by analogic reasoning), as well as Ijma (the result of the agreement of the Scholars). These sources of Islamic law were then poured into Usul al-Fiqh, which was then considered as a concrete form of Islamic law itself. This is reinforced by the classical teachings of orientalist Scholars who acknowledge that Islamic law is preserved in Usul al-Fiqh by great Scholars. However, this concept was challenged by Hallaq with a misrepresentation of his theory. He stated that Sharia can exist in society, not because of the role of Usul al-Fiqh but the role of the Fatwa (authoritative legal opinion), which is given by the Mufti and is applied by practitioners of Islamic law in Muslim-majority societies.

Book review

Book review

Child Marriage in Bangladesh: Policy and Ethics

Bangladesh is a Muslim-majority society with more than 163 million people. Most Bangladeshis hold the ideals of Islamic norms and values which is manifest in all sorts of socio-cultural behaviour. In reference to such values, the tradition of legitimizing child marriage in Bangladesh is the issue that needs to be addressed in a holistic yet rigorous approach. Currently Bangladesh ranks 4th in the world and 1st in Asia in terms of child marriage. Recently the Child Marriage Restraint Act 1929 has been abolished and it has been replaced by the Act of 2017 preserving article 2 of the previous statute, the legal age for marriage for a boy 21 and for a girl 18. This Act adds article 19 which legalizes minors (below 18 years of age) to be married off with the consent of the parents/guardians at the presence of a magistrate under “special circumstances” deemed with securing the best interest for them. The law artfully coincides with the Muslim Marriage Law which allows participants of 15 years and above to get legally married and as such contradicts the international law and the Act of 2017 itself. In the West intimate relationships including extra-marital cohabitation before reaching 18 years of age are culturally accepted. In contrast, such extra-marital and intimate relationships are strictly prohibited in Muslim-majority societies, which are dearly adhered in Bangladeshi Muslim culture. This study examines how the religious cultural and socio-economic realities influence child marriage practice in Bangladesh. Along with secondary documents, we interviewed 22 individuals including the Deputy Commissioner, the District Women and Children Affairs Officer, elected Union Parishad Chairman and Members, Social Workers, married couples and their parents/guardians at Manikganj district. In addition, we also conducted a mass survey with 62 randomly selected participants, and a voluntary online survey where the opinion of another 53 young students were collected to find broad opinion. We also collected stories of how marriages take place at the rural, urban and sub-urban areas in Bangladesh. The study has revealed that Bangladeshis does not support marriage at early ages but socio-economic reality often pushes poor into getting their children married at early ages. Many view that the special provision may encourage child marriage in the country. This study suggests that the government of Bangladesh should redefine public policy in regard to finding a middle ground between Islamic ethics and international values by exploring isomorphic mimicry and other socio-culturally accepted measures with a view to abolishing child marriage successfully.

Jamaat-e-Islami and Tabligh Jamaat: A Comparative Study of Islamic Revivalist Movements

Since the turn of the 20th century, a broad range of Islamic revivalist movements have sprung up in Muslim societies around the globe, especially where Muslims have formerly experienced, primarily through European colonisation, a gradual decline in key Islamic institutions and threats to their identity. Islamic revivalist movements have consequently emerged to inculcate religious principles en masse in the Muslim World through institutional developments, socio-political activities, missionary preaching, and propagation. Movements such as Ilyas’s Tabligh Jama’at and Maududi’s Jama’at-e-Islami are at the forefront of this enterprise and have both demonstrated their potential for bringing about important spiritual and social changes, particularly in Muslim-majority societies. Having been initiated in the Indian subcontinent, both movements currently have global and transnational influence. These two movements, however, have some fundamental differences with regard to their attitude towards polity and social development. In this paper, we compare and contrast the major characteristics of the two movements. A comparative appraisal of these two significant revivalist movements is expected to contribute to an understanding of the socio-religious discourse surrounding the phenomenon of Islamic revivalism. With this comparison, we argue that the differences in their methods are complementary rather than antagonistic, and generally pursue a similar greater goal: reviving Islam and returning society to a stable and harmonious state.

The value of Muslim and non-Muslim life: A comparative content analysis of elite American newspaper coverage of terrorism victims

A spate of terrorist attacks in the Muslim-majority world and the non-Muslim-majority West has sparked debates about an alleged double standard in Western news coverage of terrorism victims, with critics alleging Western news outlets are less concerned with Muslim victims than non-Muslim victims. This content analysis comparatively examined American newspaper framing of two terror attacks occurring in the non-Muslim West with three attacks occurring in the Muslim-majority world. Findings show American papers covered attacks in non-Muslim-majority societies prominently and framed them as acts of terrorism, and covered attacks in Muslim-majority societies scantily and framed them as internal conflicts.

Gendered Morality: Classical Islamic Ethics of the Self, Family, and Society by Zahra Ayubi

Book Review

Imagining Islam in Kosovo - The social construction of the Kosovar Muslim subject among European political actors

ABSTRACT Despite being a Muslim-majority society, Kosovo increasingly securitizes practising Muslims by politicizing the ostentatiously pious among them as a threat to Europe’s security and Kosovar identity. Given the EU’s significant discursive and political power in Kosovo, this article pursues the question of how European representatives conceive of pious Kosovar Muslims, and whether this image might explain their securitization. On the basis of 24 semi-structured interviews with various European officials conducted in 2018, I argue that they predominantly imagine pious Kosovar Muslims as influenced by foreign powers through indoctrination, material incentives or appeals to identity, which does condone their securitization. However, this image is in fact shaped by local Kosovar elites who instil such conceptions in European officials because such an image helps them in the pursuit of their own political agendas. The article exposes the intricate mechanism and power relations that underlie this process of policy-relevant knowledge production.

Understanding the religious controversy around democracy in Muslim-majority societies: An educational perspective

This study examines the debate over the meaning and place of democracy in Arab and Muslim-majority societies as interpreted by Islamist–Salafi vs. liberal/progressive perspectives. We explore the epistemological and political tenets of both ideologies and emphasize the possible educational implications of liberal/progressive Islam in the transitional societies of the Middle East. We propose the teaching of Islam through phenomenological and cultural studies pedagogies so that students exercise their capacities of inclusive and equal citizenship, religious reasoning, reflective identities and the pursuit of the common good.

Islamic business ethics and practices of Islamic banks

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to empirically examine the perception of Islamic bank employees in Malaysia and selected Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries, namely, Bahrain, Oman and the UAE, on various issues related to Islamic business ethics and the practices of the Islamic banks at which they work.Design/methodology/approachThe required data to determine Islamic bank employees’ ethical perceptions is sourced from 144 completed survey questionnaires and interviews with 12 Islamic bank senior executives. Islamic model of normative business ethics is used to measure the relationship between attitudes and behaviours of employees and the ethical practices of Islamic banks.FindingsResults show that the Islamic bank personnel working in Malaysia and the GCC perceived that their banks conform to Islamic ethical norms in business. These banks were seen to be concerned with their impact on society, and ethics prevailed over profit-maximisation. The findings also suggest that despite being less regulated compared to Malaysia, Islamic bank personnel in GCC had a better impression of the ethical standard practised in their institutions compared to the feedback given by their Malaysian counterparts. Additionally, this research also proves that, in general, there is a positive correlation between attitudes and behaviours of employees and the ethical practices of Islamic banks.Research limitations/implicationsThe main limitation of the study is that the respondents were not selected randomly but rather through a convenient sampling of personal contacts. Despite the inherent limitation of the sampling method because of the constraints of time and resources, the large number of respondents from 12 different banks are representative of the Islamic bank employees in Malaysia and the GCC.Practical implicationsThe findings may serve as a useful input for Islamic financial institutions in improving their practices to conform with Islamic ethical norms.Originality/valueThe topic of Islamic business ethics and the practices of Islamic banks have not been fully understood by its stakeholders. This paper aims to give insights on how far Islamic bank business practices in Muslim majority societies fit with the prescribed business framework in Islam and its contributing value for both the organization and employees.

A Subaltern’s Quest for Identity and Respect: A Gramscian Study of ‘Our Lady of Alice Bhatti’

The research paper attempts to probe the resistance of subaltern against the institutionalized oppression of the capitalist society shown in the novel of ‘Our Lady of Alice Bhatti’ by Mohammad Hanif. The researcher applies the theory of Gramsci to explore the abject condition, suppression and subsequent resistance of subaltern class. This novel gives voice to the oppressed, suppressed and wretched minority of Pakistani society. Alice Bhatti, the protagonist is in many ways a subaltern. She is a Christian in Muslim majority society; she lives in the French colony in the slums of Karachi, she is a woman in the patriarchal society. This novel shows the struggle and resilience of the protagonist. She fought against triple marginalization: She resists against poverty, she resists against patriarchy, she resists against religious fundamentalism, she resists against the bourgeoisie class. Mohammad Hanif produces a subaltern who speaks, who struggles, and who fights against the system. In the end, she is crushed by the ruthless hands of the system. Her death by acid is a cry of a subaltern against inhuman suppression.

Introduction

Miller-Idriss, C., Siddiqui, S. (2019). Introduction. Journal of Education in Muslim Societies, 1(1), 1–2. DOI 10.2979/jems.1.1.01 • Copyright © 2019 International Institute of Islamic Thought Introduction W elcome to the first issue of the Journal of Education in Muslim Societies (JEMS), which is being published as part of the International Institute of Islamic Thought’s new Advancing Education in Muslim Societies (AEMS) initiative in partnership with Indiana University Press. JEMS aims to contribute original scholarly research to debates, practices, policies , and reforms affecting education in Muslim societies in an attempt to link the academic and theoretical domains with policy and practice. By casting light on the state of education and educational reform in these societies, we seek to interrogate their core problems, needs, reform objectives, approaches and perspectives, crosscutting trends, innovations, opportunities, and other education-related challenges. Some clarification of terms is important. First, we reject the notion that the world is divided into Muslim and non-Muslim societies. Thus, the journal examines education in any society in which Muslims are present. In Muslim-majority societies, for example, our examination may focus on nationwide systems (secular as well as religious), while in Muslim-minority societies, we may study the educational activity of the indigenous Muslim populations. Second, our definition of education is broad and inclusive. It includes, but is not limited to, religious education, PreK-12, higher education, parenting, nonformal education, youth development, and adult learning over the course of one’s life. Within formal educational systems, we seek scholarly contributions related to education policy, curriculum, pedagogy, governance and leadership, and assessment and evaluation. Outside of formal educational systems, we aim to publish original research on early childhood development and parenting, non-formal and alternative education, after-school programs and summer camps, and continuing education programs. JEMS also encourages scholarship in the areas of educational equity; the context of education; the role of philanthropy in education; and the relevant philosophical, epistemological, and theoretical underpinnings. We seek articles by researchers from across disciplines (for example, history, political science, religious studies, sociology, public affairs, nonprofit management, business, and philanthropy) and from policymakers and practitioners throughout the world working in this emerging field. This first issue focuses on the role of what we call “third space reform” in education. Most existing approaches to global educational reform frame education in utilitarian and transactional terms, viewing it as a means to strengthen democracy (the first space) or as an engine for a nation’s economic development (the second space). These are not unworthy goals, of course. However, the AEMS initiative starts from the premise that the purpose of education is both utilitarian and transformative. In this framework, education is not only a transaction through 2 JournalofEducationinMuslimSocieties · Vol. 1, No. 1 which degree attainment leads to a life of accomplishments, but also a lifelong process through which individuals experience meaning and fulfillment. Responding to a need for highlighting socio-emotional learning and holistic learner development, AEMS represents a potential “third space” in global educational reform efforts—one that blends and expands the civic education and human capital approaches toward overall student and human well-being. This is a key philosophical difference with existing approaches to education reform. Given its strong research and evidence base, AEMS will ensure that all children have access to education for a meaningful life—namely, one that offers psychological and emotional stability; social and relational fulfillment; and purposeful and impactful economic, community, and political engagement. This first issue consists of a report of the Symposium on Muslim Philanthropy and Civil Society held at Indiana University in Indianapolis during October 2018, which analyzed issues related to education in Muslim societies, three peerreviewed research articles, and four book reviews. In the flagship article for this premiere issue, Ilham Nasser, Cynthia MillerIdriss , and Ahmed Alwani present the conceptual research framework underpinning AEMS, an empirical initiative that seeks to contribute evidence-based knowledge on the state of education and, more specifically, the well-being of students in an authentic and context-sensitive manner. While prior educational research and interventions have emphasized education for employment or citizen development, the authors argue for a broader and more holistic approach to young people...