Muslim Authors Research Articles

Discovering Appearance of the Franks in Arab Sources (8th–9th Centuries)

At the time of Crusades, the term “franks” (ifranj) was common Arabic word for the crusaders. Since that, almost any study of the Crusades from the “Islamic perspective” tends to discover francs in Arab sources. However, medieval Muslim authors mentioned the Franks since the early 9th century, long before the Crusades, but nobody asks when and how Arabic authors actually learn about the Franks. There is still a half-century-old hypothesis by B. Lewis, attributing the word “franc” (faranj) to the Greek “fráŋkos”. The aim of our article is to discover the original source from which the Arabs first learn about the Franks, so we study the 9th-century Arab texts reporting on the first known contact between Arabs and Franks during the Muslim conquest of Spain. It seems that the Arabic faranj could hardly originate from the Greek fráŋkos, as the combination of letters <γκ> sounds as <nk> during this period (which corresponds to another Arabic form firank appearing in a number of texts in 11th–12th centuries and not widely used). That is why the Arabic franc could actually originate from Syriac as a transcription of the Syriac prangāiā. Based on message of the 9th-century historian Ibn Kutaiba we suppose that Arabs learned this term from the Syrian sailors who ensured the crossing of Muslim army through the Strait of Gibraltar in the spring of 711.

САБЛЯ ИМАМА ТАШУ-ХАДЖИ САЯСАНСКОГО: К ВОПРОСУ О ПОДЛИННОСТИ ОДНОГО ЭКСПОНАТА

The authors of the essay endeavored to research facts from the military history of the Caucasian War that are related with Tashu-Hadji Sayasanovsky, a campaigner for the third Imam Shamil and a notable leader of the movement for gazavat and Sharia in Chechnya and Dagestan. The study’s major plot is associated with the examination of the legitimacy of the bladed weapon, the owners of which claim it to be a trophy saber of Imam Tashu-Hadji. Despite the local context of this his-torical event, the circumstances associated with the person of Tashu-Hadji naturally increase the collection value of the saber. Summarizing the information about the military campaigns in which Tashu-Hadji took part, the authors expressed their opinion about the most likely circumstances when the saber could actually fall into the hands of the Russian military. The paper pays special emphasis on the examination and analysis of the exhibit owners’ arguments. The authors conclude that, despite the verisimilar and plausible arguments, there are numerous inconsistencies and con-tradictions in the information about the saber of Imam Tashu-Hadji, which is stated by its owners. Thus, the authenticity of the attribution of this collection item is called into question. The article’s materials were published historical evidence, presented by memoirs of Caucasus conquest partici-pants, official correspondence of Russian military officials, works of military historians contem-poraneous with the events, and Arabic-language works of Caucasian Muslim authors.

قرآنیات سے متعلق رچرڈ بیل کے افکار: "انٹرو ڈکشن ٹو قرآن" کا تجزیاتی مطالعہ

The Quran has deep and wide influence upon the spirit of man. It is recited in Muslim’s Festivals and family occasions. It is used by Muslims to their private and public devotions. It moulds their thoughts. In lslamic context the Orientalists can be described as a group of non muslim authors, particularly from the west using traditional western Ideology to study Islam. Orientalists targeted Islam from all sides according to their own goals and their own mental levels who possessed certain moral values. The Orientalists largely allege the authorship of the Quran and try to prove that it was written by Prophet Muhammad (PBUH). Western Scholars have been interested in Quranic studies the growing group of orientalists is publishing books, conducting conferences and presenting research papers to prove the Quran is a purely human book. According to the Richard Bell who is one of the orientalists who translated the Quran and wrote a famous book introduction to Quran the prophet field to present Quran in compiled form he objects on formation compilation collection Preservation and incompletion of Quran. He criticizes on the different aspects of Quran. The main purpose of this paper is to critically review Richard Bell’s objections and to clarify the purpose and back ground of the objections. There is no doubt Quran is completely safe without any changing. This article highlights the thoughts of Richard Bell (Orientalist) who spent his life to study the Quran. This paper though an analytical study of Richard Bell to provide the readers with a basic framework for further ventures.

Qabq in the Geographical work and Maps in Abu Muhammad al-Idrisi’s <i>Nuzhat al-mushtaq fi ikhtiraq al-afaq</i>

The article gives new information on the history of peoples of the Caucasus on the basis of translation, commentary and comparative analysis of excerpts from the 12th c. Arabic geographical work Nuzhat al-mushtaq fi ikhtiraq al-afaq (The Delight of Him Who Desires to Journey through the Climates) by Abu Muhammad al-Idrisi, as well as based on early sources by some Muslim authors related to the history of Qabq. For the first time in Russian historiography, it compares textual fragments from Nuzhat al-mushtaq with its maps of the given region in order to determine the degree of coherence between them, and it also delineates the differences between al-Idrisi’s maps in the Paris, St. Petersburg and Oxford manuscripts on Qabq.

Titulature of the Kara-Khitay rulers in Muslim sources of the 12th–15th centuries

The power of the Qara-Khitay for a relatively short period of time, by historical standards, from the second quarter of the 12th to the beginning of the 13th centuries. had a huge impact on the political development of eastern Desht-i Qipchak, as well as on the settled Muslim regions of Transoxiana and Khorasan. The rulers of the Qara-Khitay actively intervened in the struggle for the “Seljuk inheritance” after the death of Sultan Sanjar in 1157 with the Khorezmshahs of the Anushteginid dynasty and the sultans of Gur, to subordinate to their power the regional rulers of Transoxiana, as well as individual nomadic Turkic tribes in these lands — for example, the Qarluks. In this regard, the history of the Qara-Khitay state was reflected in numerous Muslim historical and geographical writings of the pre-Mongol era and later period. Modern researchers, both in their works on the history of Central Asia and in the few works dealing directly with the Qara-Khitay state, call the Qara-Khitay ruler uniformly — “Gur Khan”. However, there is no such unanimity regarding the title of the Qara-Khitay ruler in the composition of Muslim historical and geographical works, especially pre-Mongol time. Moreover, up to a certain point, the title “Gur Khan” does not occur in them at all, and Muslim authors use other markers to denote the Qara-Khitay ruler. In this regard, it was interesting to trace the evolution of this title as part of Muslim sources not only of the 12th — early 13th centuries, but also as part of later monuments. All this will make it possible to understand more clearly not only how the authors of different times titled the Qara-Khitay ruler, but also what they understood by this or that title, how well they imagined its origin, etc. This will also allow us to highlight a certain tradition of describing the history of the Qara-Khitay statehood as part of Muslim historical writings and identify the key monuments in this case, as well as highlight certain controversial subjects related to the titulature of the Qara-Khitay rulers.

To be a Muslim in the Penitentiary System of the Russian Empire: Evidence from Tatar Ego-documents of the Early 20th Century

The article sheds light on the experience of being an inorodets (a non-Russian, non-Christian subjects of the Russian Empire) in the imperial penitentiary system. The Tatar intellectual elite of the early 20th century pondered over the “prison experience” of this period in a number of texts, and the most significant of them are ego-documents written by a new generation of the Tatar elite that reflect new trends in the public discourse of the Muslim community of late imperial Russia. The present publication is based on the texts of private origin (autobiographies, memoirs, diaries) of a number of Muslim prisoners who had a difficult relationship with the authorities as well as with the officially recognized Muslim clergy. The article analyzes three works representing different views of Muslim authors on their prison experience. The prison reality at the turn of the 1870-1880s is depicted in the autobiography of Gabdrashid Ibragimov, who described it from the position of a young Muslim believer. He experienced feelings of shame during in time imprisoned; and at the same he realized that the prison had become for him a “school of life.” The other two writings are the famous work “Prison [Tiur’ma]” by Gaiaz Iskhaqyi and “Prison Reminiscences [Tiuremnye vospominaniia]” by Iusuf Akchura. They were published in 1907 and describe the prison experience of a Muslim in a Tsarist prison from an alternative perspective. We see that the emerging Tatar intellectual circle was quite seriously incorporated into the political context of the late Russian Empire. Therefore, religious aspects of prison reality occupy a rather modest place in the works of the Tatar political activists, and the personal experience of religious feelings is marginal. This corresponds to the circumstance that personal religious experience did not dominate the general worldview of the authors. At the same time the description of prison experience in the form of a more or less developed literary work reflected the level of the various authors’ “personality as well as cognitive and human maturity.”

The Forging of a Tradition: The Hebrew Bible, Ezra the Scribe, and the Corruption of Jewish Monotheism According to the Writings of al-Ṭabarī, al-Thaʿlabī, and Ibn Ḥazm

A widely distributed religious legend maintains that Ezra the scribe rewrote the Hebrew Bible sometime during the post-exilic period. The story is interpreted differently among its varying iterations. Some accounts view Ezra’s recovery of the Scriptures as an act of divine wonder while other versions insist that Ezra’s hand distorted the biblical text. Both outlooks are present in medieval Islamic writings. This article considers the polemical approach of three Muslim authors (e.g., al-Ṭabarī, al-Thaʿlabī, and Ibn Ḥazm) and their portraits of Ezra, including his role that led to a purported compromise of Jewish monotheism. The article explores Ibn Ḥazm’s claim that Ezra the scribe corrupted the biblical text. Several sources are examined (e.g., 4 Ezra, Porphyry, Justin Martyr, a Samaritan liturgical imprecation, and diverse rabbinic traditions) as plausible support for the charge that Ezra corrupted the Scriptures. A tale from Avot d’Rabbi Natan that features Ezra’s alleged scribal dots is posited as a reasonable source for the comment. Given Ibn Ḥazm’s interpretive outlook and Ezra’s prominent role in the story, the dots offer a new and sensible explanation.

Weighing the Baghdādī Raṭl: A Metrological Muddle

Abstract This study addresses a metrological muddle: attempts to determine the metrical equivalence of the Baghdādī raṭl, a measure for coins, commerce, and religious requirements during the Abbasid and Mamluk eras. Western writers Sauvaire and Hinz interpreted the measure of the widespread Baghdādī raṭl by determining a metric equivalent around three grams for the building block of the silver dirham weight. Islamic scholars, however, proposed three different dirham amounts for this raṭl and noted that there were two different ways of determining the standard ratio of the dirham to the dinar. These scholars applied the Baghdādī raṭl of their day to determine the weights of two earlier measures, the ṣāʿ and the mudd from the time of the Prophet Muḥammad. The study of Islamic era metrology has received little critical attention, apart from the field of numismatics, since the work of Walther Hinz, last updated in 1970. I provide a prolegomenon for the need to reread both earlier Muslim authors and the seminal works of Don Vasquez Queipo, Henri Sauvaire and others. Suggestions for approaching the interpretation of Islamic era weights and measures are provided.

Britain in the Awareness of Muslim Literature; Early Historical and Geographical Knowledge until the time of al-Idrīsī (217 AH/ 833 CE – 560 AH/ 1165 CE)

Muslim authors paid a significant interest in European peoples and countries in the view of growing the relationship between Muslim World and Medieval Christian Europe and the flourish of authorship in Muslim scholarship. In fact, a part of the Muslim's interest was given to the British Isles in spite of it is far distance of Muslim lands. Therefore, the present article focuses on principle significant questions; what was Britain for early Muslim authors? and what were the most important reasons for interesting those Muslim authors in it, and what were the most effective factors contributing in developing such interest until the mid-6th AH/ 12th century CE when the geographer al-Idrīsī was alive. Hence, the researcher has to investigate the beginnings of the term "Britain" in Muslim traditional sources since the establishment of authorship in the Muslim world, particularly during first quarter of the 3rd AH/ 9th CE century when the first reference to "Marṭāniyah" was recorded. The al-Idrīsī's account on the British Isles is worthy to examine since he sheds light on its major islands, described in detail the most important British towns and cities in his time, and some of its well-known rivers. He also tried to determine the distances between some of these cities and towns by the mile, with some references to political and economic conditions in the British Isles in his time. All that clarifies the extent of early Muslim interest in the British Isles, seeming limited to the geographical knowledge among most Muslim writings during the period under study.

Christian Monastic Life in Early Islam

Christian Monastic Life in Early Islam

The phenomenon of late Qara-khitay historiography: Nasir ad-Din Munshi Kermani and his historical work

Among the monuments of Muslim historiography several works can be distinguished, the authors of which build in their works a clear continuity between the Qutlugh Khanids dynasty that ruled within Kerman, whose founder was khajib Barak, and the previously existing Qara-Khitay power. In one of the earlier works, the author of this article called these Muslim writings «late Qara-Khitay historiography» and within the framework of the presented research I would like to substantiate the validity of such a statement. To do this, it is necessary to once again understand how and why Muslim historians distinguish the connection between khajib Barak and his successors, whether they label them «Qara-Khitay» and how else the connection between the Qutlugh Khanids and the Gur-Khans is distinguished. In addition, the author of the article intends to demonstrate the evolution of the description of the biography of Barak in several monuments of the XIII – XV in order to demonstrate clearly how Muslim authors cite new elements linking him with the Qara-Khitay, as well as his heirs. Undoubtedly, such a historiographical phenomenon should have an explanation, as well as the origin, that is, the author who initiated such a tradition. The author of this article comes to the conclusion that Nasir al-Din Munshi Kermani could have been the ancestor of this tradition in the historical work, which, «Simt al-'Ula lil-Khadra al-'Uliya», probably for the first time traces most of the markers that make it possible to link the Qutlugh Khanids dynasty with the Qara-Khitay state.

Постзолотоордынский декаданс и судьбы религии в казахском кочевом обществе XV – начала XVIII вв.

Research objectives: In response to the problem of diametrically opposed views on the Islamization of Kazakh nomads, this paper aims to present a new interpre­tation of the religion`s destiny in connection with post-Golden Horde decadence. In this regard, certain tasks must be addressed: to characterize new research trends; to substantiate the argument for the completion of Islamization under Uzbek Khan and the Muslim identity of the Kazakh Khanate; to propose a hypothesis on the religion’s crisis further in order to challenge the thesis of “Superficial Islam”. Research materials: The research used a variety of sources. Required information is contained in Muslim authors’ works such as those of Seyfi Chelebi, Fazlallah Ibn Ruzbihan, etc., as well as several Russian-European authors’ notes. Particular attention was paid to Kazakh genealogies and folklore. Results of the research: Serious differences in views on the time of the area’s full Islamization are revealed. An alternative point of view about the full-fledged Steppe Islamization already in 14th–early 15th centuries is justified. In general characteristics of Kazakh religion, its peculiar forms in accordance with the concept of regional Islam were not qualified as a pre-Islamic complex. At the same time, taking into account the evidence of Islam`s weakness in the Steppe of the later era, the authors propose a new approach – studying Islam in the context of the post-Golden Horde decadence. From this perspective, the idea of a gradual weakening of tradition and an institutional disintegration of religion “after Uzbek Khan” could be admitted.

In the Aftermath of Popularisation and de-Islamisation

This paper explores significant institutional and individual efforts in the struggle for the “authentic Rumi” among Muslims in the West, Turkey and Iran. Widely known in the Muslim world and among Orientalists for centuries, Rumi’s poetry became a global phenomenon in the 21st century. Free renditions by Coleman Barks have significantly contributed to Rumi’s new popularity. However, often accompanied by the erasure or minimisation of its Islamic content, the popular versions have met wide criticism in various Muslim contexts. Despite traditionally different approaches to Rumi’s poetry, the discourse about its “authentic interpretation” has become dominant in academia in Turkey and Iran, and among Muslim scholars in the West. Today, Muslim authors strongly emphasise the Islamic character of Rumi’s opus and call for the contextualization and reinterpretation of his poetry through the re-invention of traditional modes of its reading and understanding.

Ethics in Muslim Writing and Research Methodology: The Case of Ibn Khaldun's Scholarly Writing

This study examines the concept and practice of scholarly writing among Muslim scholars, with a special reference to 'Abdul Rahman Ibn Khaldun (d.1406). The research draws on a textual analysis of Ibn Khaldun’s Muqaddimah and other early Muslim works regarding the craft of writing while addressing the broader, wider context of writing ethicality and its influence on social consciousness. This study discusses the worldview and ethics of writing, concepts, and terminologies, sources and objectives, investigation, and styles of presentation according. This research demonstrates that Ibn Khaldun’s writing methodology and style continue to stand as a prime example for scholarship in the social sciences and that his spiritual beliefs and value system served to further enhance the originality and rigor of his writing and conceptual schemes. Further inductive research conducted across a larger body of Muslim literature will bring about interesting insights on the relationship between spirituality and research writing, as well as the historical contribution of Muslim authors to the advancement of universal knowledge.

مناجم الزمرد في التراث العربي الإسلامي: نصوص مُهملة في التدوين الحديث لتاريخ التعدين

تتجاهل العديد من الدراسات الحديثة في مجال تأريخ التعدين، حقيقة الانتشار الواسع للمناجم في البلاد الإسلامية، والتي تزعم بعضها (جولياني Giuliani، هوزي Heuzé ...)، أن استغلال مناجم الزمرد في صعيد مصر قد توقف في الفترة الغالية-الرومانية وقبل العصر الإسلامي. لقد اتفق العديد من المؤلفين والجغرافيين والرحالة والمؤرخين المسلمين، كالمسعودي والبيروني والإدريسي والزهري والمقريزي...، على تواجد الزمرد خصوصا في صعيد مصر وكذا في بعض المناطق الهندية-الإيرانية. كما أكدوا على استغلال هذه المناجم في الفترة الإسلامية. لقد تضمنت النصوص التراثية التي بلغتنا، إضافة إلى المعطيات التاريخية، إفادات مهمة جدا تتعلق بالتحديد المكاني لمناجم الزمرد وتنظيم العمل فيها والتدبير الاقتصادي لها وكيفية معالجة هذا المعدن النفيس والصخور المحتضنة له والعلامات الدالة عليه أو التي تشير إلى قرب الوصول إليه...، مما يدل على الخبرة العالية التي توفرت للمنقبين والمُعَدنين في مجال التنقيب عن الزمرد واستخراجه وللجواهريين في مجال معالجته واستغلاله، خلال الفترة الإسلامية. Many recent studies about mining history ignore the widespread use of mines in Islamic countries, some of those studies like Giuliani and Heuzé claim that the exploitation of emerald mines in Upper Egypt stopped in the Gaul-Roman period and before the Islamic era. However, many Muslim authors, geographers, travelers, and historians (such as Al-Masudi, Al-Biruni, Al-Idrisi, Al-Zuhri and Al-Maqrizi) have agreed on the presence of emerald especially in Upper Egypt and in some Indo-Iranian regions. They also emphasized the exploitation of these mines during the Islamic period. The heritage texts that has reached us, in addition to historical data, include very important statements related to the localisation of emerald mines, the organizing of work and economic management during the mining process, how to treat this precious metal, the rocks incubating it, and the indications identifying reaching the deposits. All of this implies the high experience of the prospectors and miners in emerald mining and the jewelers in processing it during the Islamic period.

“Personal Opinion” in Qurʾānic Exegesis: Medieval Debates and Interpretations of al-Tafsīr bi-l-Raʾy

Abstract This article explores the long-contested question about the role of individual judgement vis-à-vis the authority of tradition in the interpretation of the Qurʾān. It focuses on the notion of al-tafsīr bi-l-raʾy – interpretation of the Qurʾān by “personal opinion” – and offers an insight into medieval Muslim debates over the legitimacy of this type of exegesis, its alleged prophetic disapproval, and the scope and conditions of its use. Based on the Sunnī tafsīr works from the 3rd/9th to the 6th/12th centuries, the article examines how in the course of these debates Muslim authors negotiated the meaning of al-tafsīr bi-l-raʾy. Against the view that it encompassed any interpretation beyond tradition-based tafsīr, their reinterpretations of the term implied that philological, juridical, and Ṣūfī tafsīr could not be categorized as al-tafsīr bi-l-raʾy, thereby narrowing the meaning of this concept and broadening the scope of legitimate exegesis and interpretative authorities in Sunnī tafsīr tradition.

Between “Tyranny” and “Gentleness”: The Construction of Fernando III and Christian Kings in Arabic-Islamic Sources

Abstract This article examines the construction of the memory of Fernando III of Castile-León in Arabic-Islamic texts in order to explore the cross-cultural geopolitics of the western Mediterranean. It argues that historiographical attempts to define righteous authority transcended religious affiliation among military and political elites. In support of this claim, this article first provides a macro-historical survey of Arabic-Islamic texts to ascertain common sociocultural features used in describing Iberian kings. While stereotypes of Christian monarchs exist, Muslim depictions of individuals had a broad spectrum of associations. Second, the focused example of the memory of Fernando III demonstrates how Muslim authors were strategic in deciding whether to describe Christian monarchs or remain silent about them, to praise them or criticize/vilify them. Ultimately, in contrast to Western traditions of intensely scrutinizing the conquest narratives in Christian chronicles, which has led to a polarized view opposing Muslim and Christian rhetoric, the Arabic-Islamic sources depict Fernando III within the framework of the collapse of the Almohad state as one ruler among many, thus reflecting a broader sense of Maghrebi geopolitics as a larger struggle to define righteous authority.

Autohtona islamska psihologija u bosanskom kontekstu / Indigenous Islamic Psychology in Bosnian Context

The idea of Islamic psychology in its different meanings has been present for years in scientific and academic circles of the East and the West. With the increasing presence of postmodern ideas in today science and aspirations of the former colonies for cultural and scientific emancipation from their Western colonizers, this syntagm during last decades has more and more assumed a meaning of indigenous scientific paradigm in contemporary psychology that is rooted in Islamic teaching about man. The main aim of this paper is to determine as to what extent and in which manner Muslim authors in Bosnia and Herzegovina have discussed this theme. Our analysis of relevant literature has shown that the topic of indigenous Islamic perspective in psychology has been present in local Muslim theological and Sufi circles since ever. Focused reconsideration of modern psychological theory and practice in the light of basic premises of Islamic anthropology, however, goes back to 1990ies and has mostly been an expression of independent and uncoordinated efforts on the part of local enthusiasts, Islamic institutions of higher learning and a number of NGOs. Their achievements in this regard could be generally traced in traditional Sufi works, recent spiritual and psychological thought of Muslim theologians, scientific analysis of Muslim psychologists and translations of relevant foreign literature. Altogether, they mostly aim to explicate building blocks of Islamic paradigm in psychology and understanding of human personality, to elaborate possible models of integrating Islamic spiritual and psychological concepts or spiritual exercises in psychotherapeutic practice, and to expose Sufi thought and understanding of spiritual upbringing as well as psychological heritage of early Muslim scholars. A limited number of comparative psychology works bears methodological features of the Islamic Filter, Islamic Psychology and Comparative Approaches (Kaplick and Skinner, 2017) but never ones of Multilevel Interdisciplinary Paradigm (Al-Karam, 2018).

Within the Hybrid Imagination: Muslim Women's Agency after 9/11 in Laila Halaby’s once in a Promised Land

In literary imaginations, Muslim women are frequently portrayed as disempowered, oppressed, and devalued by Muslim men, submissive to their husbands with no equal rights, utterly neglected by their parents and mistreated as daughters-in-law, and, most notably, always kept at home and under the veil of ignorance. Some Muslim authors, however, strayed from these Orientalist, neo-Orientalist, and postcolonial depictions of Muslim women. Islamophobia escalated after the September 11 attacks, resulting in Muslims being exposed to othering, profiling, discrimination, and physical and verbal abuse. The post-9/11 public power discourse and Islamophobic social rhetoric that accompanied the War on Terrorism produced a narrative of destroying terrorism, instituting democracy, and freeing burqa-clad Muslim women from patriarchal and religious restrictions. After 9/11, the fictional works of Western authors propagated negative preconceptions of Islam and Muslims. This portrayal intentionally eliminated any prospective Muslim female characters, so developing and endorsing the non-entity persona of Muslim women who have little place, position, and role in the public arena, and are therefore not worth depicting. In contrast, Muslim authors presented the flip side of the coin to contradict this widespread misunderstanding and stereotyping of Muslims and Islam. This research paper investigates the portrayal of Muslim women in post-9/11 literature, giving special reference to the novel Once in a Promised Land by Laila Halaby.

With Ibn Ḫaldūn in His Workshop: What He Read in Ibn al-ʿAmīd, What He Retained, and Why

Abstract Ibn Ḫaldūn spent the last 24 years of his life in Egypt. There he enlarged the scope of his history, venturing beyond the boundaries of his own civilization. In this process, three authors played a crucial role: the Copto-Arabic historian Ibn al-ʿAmīd al-Makīn, the Josippon, and the Arabic translation of Orosius. Adopting a “coring method”, and based on Ibn al-ʿAmīd’s forthcoming edition, this article studies the use of the Coptic historian in a very limited, but significant, sample of Ibn Ḫaldūn’s history, i.e., the passage devoted to the Achaemenids. The comparison between the two texts allows to draw some conclusions regarding the process of transmission of historical materials from late antiquity to Islam. First, historiography was perceived by Ibn Ḫaldūn and several other Muslim authors as a discipline in which non-Muslims could participate, and the Bible was generally considered as a reliable source of information. Second, the accounts on pre-Islamic history which were more likely to be preserved shared three traits: they were mostly understandable, relevant to the readers, and non-controversial.