Musk Gland Research Articles

Research progress on musk secretion mechanism of forest musk deer

Forest musk deer (Moschus berezovskii), a rare wild medicinal animal, is listed under the category of the state key protected wildlife list of China. Musk, secreted by the musk glands, is with high economic and medicinal value and used as precious traditional medicine in China. In order to meet the needs of musk in Chinese traditional medicine, forest musk deer farming was conducted in 1950s, but the research progress on musk secretion mechanism was slow. Therefore, by reviewing the histological and anatomical structure of forest musk deer musk gland, the relationship between sex hormones and the musk secretion process, and the molecular mechanism of the musk secretion, the existing problems in investigating the musk secretion mechanism were analyzed and the development trends in this field were also discussed, in order to provide a reference for further studies on the musk secretion mechanism and improve musk production of forest musk deer.

Implication of musk deer (Moschus spp.) depletion from hunter reports and dung transect data in northwest Yunnan, China

Musk deer (Moschus spp.) have been over-exploited leading to steep population declines. The demand for musk for its use in medicine and perfumery industries poses the biggest threat to musk deer. The present study aimed to assess the depletion level of musk deer over time in northwest Yunnan by using hunter reports and dung transect data. Hunters were asked to recall musk gland catch-effort changes between the early 1990s and over two years (January 2009 to December 2010). Surveys using dung transect methodology were conducted on musk deer population in poaching and non-poaching sites. The results obtained revealed that the hunting frequency is constant in the two periods. Annual musk gland catch per hunter significantly declined from 7.4 (SD=1.8) in the early 1990s to 0.7 (SD=0.9) over the 2009–2010 period. A significantly higher proportion of hunters used snares over the 2009–2010 period (74%) than in the early 1990s (18%). The majority of the informants (70%) reported that the average distance from the village at which hunters operated has increased over the later two year period. The mean dung encounter rate values in the non-poaching site were about six times higher than that in poaching sites. Hunter responses were consistent with dung transect data that suggest musk deer population is seriously compromised throughout its range in northwest Yunnan. The present study has shown that catch-effort data from hunter reports can provide pertinent information about the current hunting practices and problems of prey depletion and for design of conservation interventions for hunted species.

Status, habitat use and conservation of Alpine musk deer (Moschus chrysogaster) in Uttarakhand Himalayas, India

Population status, habitat use and threats to conservation of Alpine musk deer (AMD; Moschus chrysogaster) were studied at 13 sites between 2500 and 4500 m a.s.l. in Uttarakhand Himalayas (India) from October 2003 to December 2006. Forest trails were monitored to estimate the abundance of AMD. Data on current status and habitat use of AMD and associated ungulate species were collected by sampling of pellet groups. The relative abundance of AMD in terms of encounter rate (groups/km) and pellet groups density (pellet groups/ha) was highest in Saukherk (1.3 groups/km and 58.8 ± 8.9 pellet groups/ha, respectively). AMD pellet group numbers-habitat assessment matrix was subjected to principal component analysis to determine ecological gradients governing spatial occurrence of AMD. The first two principal components accounted for 23.7% of variation and these were related to shrub-layer attributes and livestock dung abundance, grazing and grass density, respectively. The discriminant function analysis was performed to determine spatial ecological separation between AMD and other sympatric ungulate species. Altitude, shrub density, distance to human habitation and herb density were key factors which separate musk deer from other species. Poaching of AMD for musk gland emerged as principal threat to species across sites. Elimination of poaching, strengthening the management of existing protected areas (PA) and involvement of local communities are recommended for long-term conservation of AMD.

Musk Gland Swelling in an Anemic Black Bengal Goat; Case Study

Musk Gland Swelling in an Anemic Black Bengal Goat; Case Study

A new box turtle from the Miocene/Pliocene boundary (latest Hemphillian) of Oklahoma and a refined chronology of box turtle diversification

A near complete shell from the Hemphillian 4 (Miocene/Pliocene boundary) Buis Ranch local fauna of Beaver County, Oklahoma, represents a fossil box turtle. An anterior contact of neural III and neural V with costal III and costal V only, respectively, presence of a small contact between the suprapygal and eleventh peripherals, development of a thin peripheral lip for articulation with the posterior plastral lobe, placement of the vertebral III/IV sulcus on neural VII, presence of two anterior musk duct glands, a rounded posterior plastral lobe, an elongate shell outline, and a complete neural series diagnose the fossil as a new species,Terrapene parornatan. sp. A phylogenetic analysis of fossil box turtles placesT. parornataalong the phylogenetic stem of the extant taxonT. ornata. The holotype of ‘Terrapene longinsulae’ cannot be distinguished fromTerrapene ornataand is therefore synonymized. Finally, ‘Terrapene’cornerilacks characters of crown groupTerrapeneand may therefore represent a stem box turtle. The provenance of the holotype of ‘Terrapene longinsulae’ is more poorly known than previously recognized and this specimen may originate from Kansas or Nebraska and be early Miocene to late Pleistocene in age.Terrapene parornatais therefore the oldest demonstrable representative of crown groupTerrapene(ca. 5.3–4.6 Ma). ‘Terrapene’cornerifrom the late Barstovian of Nebraska and fragmentary material from the middle Barstovian of Nebraska by contrast are the oldest representative of theTerrapenelineage (ca. 14.5–11.5 Ma). A review of morphological characters related to shell kinesis reveals that most are highly correlated. The results of the phylogenetic analysis converge upon those of molecular data when these correlated characters are omitted from the analysis.

Animal welfare in the musk deer

The Himalayan musk deer ( Moschus chrysogaster) is a primitive ruminant living in the remote high Himalayas. The male deer possesses a musk gland specialized for the production of musk which is one of the most valuable scented animal products—it is more expensive than gold. The deer have been commercially exploited for centuries for their precious musk pod. The musk is used for perfumes all over the world and also for traditional medicine in oriental countries. The deer originally ranged throughout the Himalayas from Afghanistan to Pakistan, India, Nepal, Bhutan and Burma. At present they are found only in isolated areas due to heavy poaching and massive habitat destruction. This species is endangered and threatened with extinction. A procedure for musk extraction from live deer (without killing them) has been developed to help in the conservation of this species. In this regard, the extraction of musk was successfully conducted many times in the Kathmandu Zoo over a period of several years. Musk deer farms have been established in China, India and Nepal. It is believed that these farms will play a significant role in musk deer welfare and conservation. In addition, there is an urgent need to give this species total protection in national parks and wildlife reserves in order to preserve genetic diversity and maintain essential ecological processes and life support systems. In addition, there should be international control of the musk trade to aid in the survival of this species.

Sexual Dimorphism in Size of Cloacal Glands of the Garter Snake, Thamnophis radix haydeni

A pair of cloacal glands lie at the base of the tail in snakes. These glands are elongate and sausageshaped and exude a thick tan-colored liquid that is often malodorous (Fitch, 1965). Because of their often malodorous secretion, these glands have been referred to as 'musk glands' or 'scent glands' (Whiting, 1969). Cloacal glands are dorsal to the hemipenes in males and are located in a corresponding position in females (Whiting, 1969). Whiting (1969) reported that cloacal glands of females were frequently larger than those of males, but provided no quantitative evidence. Thorpe (1989) found that cloacal glands of female grass snakes (Natrix natrix) were significantly longer than those of males. He suggested that smaller gland size in males was a consequence of crowding by the hemipenes. The function of these glands has been a subject of controversy for many years (Mason, 1992). Before Noble and Claussen (1936) demonstrated that the source of the female sex attractant was in the dorsal skin, many authors suggested that the glands served as its source (Whiting, 1969; Mason, 1992). More recently, authors have suggested that the secretions may be used as an alarm pheromone (Brisbain, 1968; Graves and Duvall, 1988) or for marking territory (Andren, 1986). Most often, a defensive function has been attributed to the glands because the malodorous fluid is commonly secreted after a snake has been captured and handled (Mason, 1992). Klauber (1956) speculated that the secretion may make a snake less attractive or less palatable as a prey item. We measured both length and width of cloacal glands of western plains garter snakes (Thamnophis radix haydeni) to determine whether sexual dimorphism occurs in gland size. We show that females have significantly larger glands than males and we suggest that crowding of the glands by the hemipenes may not be sufficient to explain this sexual dimorphism. We also speculate as to why females may require larger glands than males based on potential sex differences in threat of predation. Eight nongravid females, four gravid females, and 11 males were examined. These snakes were part of a group of snakes kept in captivity for approximately four months for use in an experimental study of locomotory performance and defensive behavior (Kiss-

Histological studies on postnatal development of the musk gland in house musk shrews (Suncus murinus)

The development of the musk gland in house musk shrews aged 0 to 21 days was studied lectin histochemically. On about 3 days of age, the musk gland could be discriminated from surrounding skin. This organ developed markedly on days 3 to 7, and its development continued to 21 days of age. Histologically, on day 1, the bulges that should develop into musk glands were identified in the vicinity of hair germs. On days 3 to 7, these bulges developed markedly, and on day 21 their structure revealed almost the same morphology with that in mature musk glands. We used 7 lectins; ConA, RCA I, PNA, SBA, UEA-I, DBA, and WGA. On day 1, 6 lectins except for WGA labelled the cell of the musk gland. WGA began to label it on day 3. Until 7 days of age, lectins bound to only the cytoplasm of the cell of musk glands. On days 12, however, PNA and UEA-1 labelled the cell membrane equally, and RCA I labeled it on day 21.

Lectin histochemical studies on the musk gland in the house musk shrew (Suncus murinus)

The musk gland of the adult house musk shrews (Suncus murinus) of both sexes was studied lectin histochemically. The musk gland was a kind of scent gland, consisted of congregation of branched or unbranched simple tubuloalveolar gland holocrine in nature and was attached by an apocrine gland-like structure (sweat gland) in the deeper layer of its periphery. Acinar cells of the musk gland were distinguishable into three type from basal to luminal parts of the acinus; immature cells, mature cells and degenerating cells. There was no histological difference between both sexes. Lectin-binding pattern of the musk gland was examined in comparison with that of the sweat gland and ordinary sebaceous gland by histochemical staining techniques using seven lectins: ConA, RCA I, PNA, SBA, UEA-I, DBA, WGA, WGA and PNA labelled the duct of the musk gland more intense than the acinus. Several lectins showed a tendency to label the cells situated near the luminal surface more intense than those near the basement membrane in both the acinus and duct of the musk gland. In the sweat gland and ordinary sebaceous gland, the lectin-binding pattern was different with each other and from that in the musk gland. These findings suggest that the musk gland, sweat gland, and ordinary sebaceous gland are different to each other in nature of cells and the secretion.

Tumor induction in the Japanese house musk shrew, suncus murinus (insectivora), by 1,2-dimethylhydrazine(DMH).

The carcinogenic effects of 1, 2-dimethylhydrazine (DMH) were investigated in virgin female Japanese house musk shrews, Suncus murinus (family: Soracidae, order: Insectivora). From 6 weeks of age, 15 shrews were given 14 doses of DMH (40mg per kg, s.c.), administered weekly (group 1) and another 15 animals were given 28 doses of DMH (20mg per kg, s.c.), also administered weekly (group 2); 5 untreated shrews served as controls. A high incidence of musk gland tumors, and some other tumors (carcinomas of the small intestine, pulmonary adenoma, liver adenoma, and leukemia) were induced in DMH-treated shrews, whereas no such tumors were seen in untreated shrews up to 60 weeks of age. Musk gland tumors developed in 82% (9/11) of animals in group I and in 92% (12/13) of animals in group 2 at 36 to 60 weeks of age. DMH, a colonotrophic carcinogen in rodents, did not evoke colon cancers in shrews.

Induction of tumors in the Japanese house musk shrew, Suncus murinus (Insectivora), by dimethylbenz[a]anthracene

The carcinogenic effect of 7,12-dimethylbenz[a]anthracene (DMBA) was examined in the virgin female Japanese house musk shrew, Suncus murinus (family: Soricidae, order: Insectivora). Leukemia, musk gland tumors, pilosebaceous tumors and sarcomas were induced in the DMBA-treated shrews, whereas none of the controls developed any tumors up to 50 weeks of age. DMBA emulsion was administered i.p. at a dose of 1.25 or 2.5 mg once a week, with either four or eight doses being given from 8 weeks of age. Leukemia developed in 100% (9/9), 50% (5/10), 56% (5/9) and 0% (0/10) of the animals treated with a total dose of 20 mg (8 x 2.5 mg), 10 mg (8 x 1.25 mg), 10 mg (4 x 2.5 mg) and 5 mg (4 x 1.25 mg) of DMBA respectively. Leukemia was of the lymphatic and/or mast cell type, and the spleen was the organ invariably involved. A dose-dependent effect of DMBA was not observed for pilosebaceous and musk gland tumors. When 1 mg of DMBA powder was dusted into the subcutaneous tissue at 4 weeks of age, sarcomas developed at the dusted site (69%; 9/13).

Adenomatous hyperplasia and adenomas in the lung induced by chronic feeding of butylated hydroxyanisole of Japanese house musk shrew (Suncus murinus)

A carcinogenicity study on butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA) was carried out in Japanese house musk shrews (Suncus murinus) (suncus), which have no forestomach. BHA was mixed with the basal diet and was processed into pellets. One hundred and twenty-two female and 130 male suncus were maintained with a diet containing 0, 0.5, 1.0 or 2.0% BHA for 80 weeks. All of the suncus of the 2.0% BHA groups died of bleeding in the gastrointestinal tract within 8 weeks after the commencement of the treatment. The majority of the animals in the other groups survived for greater than 52 weeks. Adenomatous hyperplasias of the lung were induced in suncus of both sexes of the 0.5 and 1.0% BHA groups at significantly higher rates than in the control groups. Lung adenomas were also induced in three suncus of the BHA groups. Pilosebaceous and musk gland tumors, mammary carcinoma, kidney hemangioma and other tumors developed in a few suncus, with no significant differences between the groups. The present study indicates that BHA induces adenomatous hyperplasia of the lung in the suncus.