Relationship Of Music Research Articles

The Impact of Music on Subjective and Physiological Indices of Emotion While Viewing Films.

Despite continued acknowledgment of the importance of music in viewing films, empirical studies investigating the interaction of music with film are conspicuously absent. Evidence from a few isolated cognitive studies suggests that the relationship between music and film is additive. Little is known, however, about the physiology of emotional response to viewing film music stimuli. The present study utilized both self report as well as physiological indices to investigate the nature of the film and music relationship. Six-second films (having either negative or positive valence and low- or high-arousal) were paired with excerpts from instrumental classical music (pretested for valence and arousal). Results indicate a fairly straight-forward, additive relationship in terms of emotion self report. The modulating role of music on physiological reactions to film, however, was more complex. This study corroborates previous evidence regarding the subjective experience of viewing images with music. Physiological evidence, however, suggests that the interactions between music and film not always are predictable. The scientific examination of the physiological correlates of human emotional response dates back to the later nineteenth century, with the work of Darwin ( 1872/1969; Lewis & Haviiand-Jones, 2000). Since that time, many words have been written in an attempt to define what an emotion is-with varying degrees of success. Two general methods of classifying emotional response, however, have earned particular recognition: the categorical and dimensional approaches. The categorical or discrete emotions approach (e.g., Izard, 1977) posits the existence of several emotions (e.g., happiness, sadness, anger, fear, disgust) that can function either independently or as members of an interrelated group (Neumann & Waldstein, 2001 ). A major criticism of this approach, however, is the lack of an agreed-upon set number of these fundamental emotions (S loboda & J us Hn, 2001 ). In various iterations of the theory, this number ranges anywhere from seven through more than a dozen (Izard, 1993). Dimensional models of emotion date back over a century (Russell, 1997). Significant recent iterations include those by Russell ( 1980), Russell & Feldman-Barrett ( 1999), and Lang ( 1995). The dimensional model posits that every emolion can be expressed as a function of (usually) two core dimensions, frequently referred to as valence ana arousal. Valence is described in terms of a range of response from positive (happiness, pleasure) to negative (sadness, displeasure). Arousal ranges from low (indicating calmness, pcacefulncss) to high (excitement, energy). These two dimensions can be aligned orthogonally so as to produce four quadrants (Figure 1 ), each of which represents one of four general valence-arousal categories: ( 1 ) positive valence, low-arousal (PV/LA); (2) positive valence, high-arousal (PV/H A); (3) negative valence, high-arousal (NV/HA); and (4) negative valence, low-arousal (NV/LA). Specific emotions can then be plotted as a function of the two dimensions; anger is NV/HA, for example, while joy is PV/HA. Statistical evidence appears to favor such a two-dimensional, valence- arousal approach to emotion (Faith and Thayer, 2001). The dimensional approach is useful not only in classifying subjective (that is, verbal) labels of emotion, but also changes in physiology. Studies in which subjects view either still pictures (e.g., Lang, Greenwald, Bradley, & llamm, 1993; Lang, Oilman, & Vaitl, 1988) or moving images (Detcnbcr. 1995; Detenber, Simons, Detenbcr, Rocdcma, & Rciss. 1999; Simons, Roedema, & Rciss, 2000) suggest that the valence and arousal of the content of a visual image is consistently linked with changes in physiology-specifically, facial muscle activity, heart rate, and electrodermal activity. Facial muscle (electromyographic, or EMG) activity is measured from two muscles: zygomaticu. …

Identifying Comparable Therapeutic Foundations between “Musical Re-play” and Improvisation

Philosophical perspectives, clinical experiences, and research findings grounded in cancer care, offer clarification of therapeutic components of “musical re–play”, that is, a client and music therapist relationship that is focused on playing with known music from the client's life. Addis' (1999) theory of mind and music and Winnicott's (1971) theory of “playing” as a means to attain growth and health are included, to inform the perspective that musical re–play can provide a multisensorial “human musical mirror” able to penetrate one's entire consciousness, including consciousness states that do not involve language. Consequently, it is the author's belief that when cancer patients are involved in musical re–play they may powerfully experience identity affirmation, creative self–discoveries, and a heightened sense of feeling and experiencing one's “real” and “alive” self. While it has been proposed that prior association with known, precomposed music thwarts creative awareness development (Aigen, 1991; Pavlicevic, 1997), consideration is given to the idea that playing with known music is a foundation for offering opportunities for creative responses and therapeutic change: changes which are evident and comparable in improvisational as well as re–played music therapy methods.

Sound morphology and the articulation of structure in electroacoustic music

A catalyst for the thinking in this paper is the way in which the concentrated direct audition of materials central to the process of electroacoustic composition can, in conjunction with powerful tools for the deconstruction and synthesis of sounds, influence the nature of musical relationships that are formed.

Reger's Historicist Modernism

In an article in 19th-Century Music published in 2002, I began to explore what I called modernism in music.1 This concept encompasses works composed in the Austro-German sphere in the years around 1900, which were intended and received as modern, but which derived their compositional energy primarily from techniques of a more remote past. Historicist modernism should be distinguished from neoclassicism, a somewhat later practice that crystallized around 1920. Exemplary neoclassical works, such as those by Stravinsky and Hindemith written in the decades between the world wars, tend to distance the musical past through a cosmopolitan lens. Works of modernism have a more urgent, elemental, and intense connection with the past, as in those of Max Reger that probe his psychic and musical relationships to Bach. We should briefly unpack the components of the term historicist Modernism as a phenomenon has been treated in a vast number of critical and historical writings. Die Modeme, as it was often called in German, refers to a set of beliefs and principles that in the broadest sense were shared by many creative artists in Europe from about the 1850s on. Many commentators point to Baudelaire's conception ofmodem, articulated in 1859, as foundational for this phase of For Baudelaire, (not yet an -ism) connoted not merely the presentness of an era, but rather a special quality ofle transitoire, le fugitif, le contingent that could be found in any period.2 The modem was thus set against not the old, but the eternal. The adjective modern and the substantive die Moderne appear frequently in German writings both from within and about the period 1880 to 1920. The nominal form can have the connotation of either or both of the English words modernity and modernism. In English, however, these words can have different meanings. I tend to understand modernity more as the condition or state of being modern; in this sense, comprises a situation that is almost passive, inevitable. Modernism is a more ideologically charged and voluntary phenomenon. It is in many cases an actual movement, propelled by a group of like-minded thinkers, artists, or critics. But modernism can also suggest a broader tent: in the years around 1900, among composers, critics, and the general public, it could encompass figures as different as Arnold Schoenberg, Richard Strauss, Max Reger, Hans Pfitzner, Max von Schillings, Alexander Zemlinsky, Ferruccio Busoni, and Gustav Mahler.3

Gregorian Chant and the Romans

Abstract A central problem in plainchant studies has been the relationship between the two “Roman” repertories, “Old Roman” (ROM) and “Gregorian” (GREG). Many attempts have been made to penetrate the “mystérieuse alchimie” that links them. Almost without exception, these have embraced the notion that ROM music was the supplier of GREG. This paper advances an alternative hypothesis. It recognizes initial transfers of ROM musical material to the Franks under Pippin III (before 768)—ROM music that was generally improvisational in process and style. However, still under Pippin or later under Charlemagne, the Franks rejected the ROM music and, in their effort to establish GREG, turned to familiar Gallican chants, which tended to have fixed, memorable melodies. Later, perhaps during the tenth century renovatio imperii under Otto I, though perhaps even during Charlemagne's reign, the authorized GREG repertory reached Rome, where it was supposed to supplant the local ROM. But the Roman musicians resisted; rather than abandon ROM, they compromised by accepting certain portions of GREG music and remodeling them so they conformed with ROM style. This sequence of events would explain the musical relationships between ROM and GREG.

Supervision or Double Vision

Supervising clinical material that is expressed in musical language but which is discussed and articulated predominantly in words can make the development of a supervisory relationship a complex process. This paper examines how certain elements within the clinical material of a musical therapeutic relationship may give rise to material of a primitive nature, and how this can become unconsciously expressed within the supervisory relationship.

The Therapeutic, Musical Relationship: a Two-Sided Affair?

Many improvisational models of music therapy involve therapist and client improvising spontaneously together. This is widely described as a form of musical relationship. However whilst there is much discussion of the client's musical input in the literature, the therapist's music attracts less attention. The author considers reasons why this may be the case and seeks evidence, from the music therapy literature and beyond, as to whether the therapist's musical input is of significance for the therapeutic process. An example of detailed analysis of the author's own clinical work is presented, in order to establish whether the therapist's musical input has an observable impact on the shared musical experience and might thus be judged to be significant for the therapeutic musical relationship. Concluding that it is indeed significant, the author goes on to consider the implications for the way music therapists consider their work.

A Sarum antiphoner and other medieval office manuscripts from England and France: some musical relationships

Using several twelfth- and thirteenth-century sources, this study examines a selected number of Office antiphons, comparing their melodic variants for patterns of similarity and difference. The ancestry of a Sarum manuscript and - in another source - the survival of a pre-Conquest musical tradition in England are discernible in Office manuscripts examined as are affinities among French and English sources. Evidence from previous chant scholarship and certain medieval historical events shed light on the observations made in this study.

Dynamic Interplay in Clinical Improvisation

I would like to begin by examining the title, since this will clarify the theoretical framework within which this paper will develop. Chambers Dictionary (1988) defines dynamic as relating to force; activity or things in motion; forms or patterns of growth or change; any driving force instrumental in growth or change. The word interplay refers to the reciprocal, mutual musical interaction between therapist and patient. Both players' contributions help to clarify the quality of the emotional interaction in the musical relationship. The concept of clinical improvisation in music therapy is best illustrated by a detour via the literature of mother-infant interaction.

An Introduction to Vibroacoustic Therapy and an Examination of its Place in Music Therapy Practice

Vibroacoustic (VA) therapy transmits to the body pre-recorded music, or pre-recorded music combined with sinusoidal low frequency sound, through loud speakers built into a chair, table or bed unit. The development of VA therapy has not been confined to one country or one product and, after examining the theoretical background to VA therapy, the author describes four VA systems. In Europe, music therapy is traditionally seen as a process which develops from an ‘active’ musical relationship. In contrast VA therapy is a ‘receptive’ intervention. The author discusses completed and on-going research with VA equipment, and concludes by asking – is VA therapy music therapy? He suggests that the principles of VA therapy can inform active music-making.

Investigating Social Processes in Group Musical Composition

In recent years, the benefits of social interaction have been recognised in learning and working environments, the impact of social support on individual confidence and creativity being widely reported. In many domains including music, ability, personality, gender and friendship relationships have been identified as influencing the success or failure of group interactions. Despite the assumption in educational practice that group work can improve individuals' performance, however, social facilitation literature indicates the presence of others can sometimes be a hindrance (Hunt & Hillery, 1973). The main aim of the current paper is to investigate how various groupings of individuals (here, children) influenced creative musical tasks. In particular, friendship as opposed to random, single and both male and female sex groups were contrasted. It was hypothesised that quality of musical outcome would be influenced to some degree by the standard of social interaction and thus impact on individual sense of self within the task context. Fifty-nine children aged 11 participated in the study. All sessions were video-recorded. A researcher and class teachers observed the children's musical interactions using a check-list and a detailed structured questionnaire to guide observations whilst the children worked in groups of six participants in the following configurations: Randomly assigned, friendship based single and both sex, non-friendship based single and both sex. In each context, the children completed a compositional task, which was then assessed by independent, experienced assessors. The children were all individually questioned post-task about their experiences. The results suggested that social grouping did not influence the standard of the creative product, but it did affect the children's social interaction and thus their personal sense of achievement and enjoyment on task.

The effect of harmonic context on phoneme monitoring in vocal music

The processing of a target chord depends on the previous musical context in which it has appeared. This harmonic priming effect occurs for fine syntactic-like changes in context and is observed irrespective of the extent of participants' musical expertise (Bigand & Pineau, Perception and Psychophysics, 59 (1997) 1098). The present study investigates how the harmonic context influences the processing of phonemes in vocal music. Eight-chord sequences were presented to participants. The four notes of each chord were played with synthetic phonemes and participants were required to quickly decide whether the last chord (the target) was sung on a syllable containing the phoneme /i/ or /u/. The musical relationship of the target chord to the previous context was manipulated so that the target chord acted as a referential tonic chord or as a congruent but less structurally important subdominant chord. Phoneme monitoring was faster for the tonic chord than for the subdominant chord. This finding has several implications for music cognition and speech perception. It also suggests that musical and phonemic processing interact at some stage of processing.

The Therapeutic Musical Relationship: A Two-Sided Affair?: A Consideration of the Significance of the Therapist's Musical Input in Co-Improvisation

Many improvisational models of music therapy involve therapist and client improvising spontaneously together. This is widely described as a form of musical relationship. However, whilst there is much discussion of the client's musical input in the literature, the therapist's music attracts less attention. The author considers reasons why this may be the case and seeks evidence, from the music therapy literature and beyond, as to whether the therapist's musical input is of significance for the therapeutic process. An example of detailed analysis of the author's own clinical work is presented, in order to establish whether the therapist's musical input has an observable impact on the shared musical experience and might thus be judged to be significant for the therapeutic musical relationship. Concluding that it is indeed significant, the author goes on to consider the implications for the way music therapists consider their work.

Speech synthesis and analysis of dialects

A set of intonation intervals for a chosen dialect are applied to the intonational contour of a phomene string derived from a single set of stored linguistic units, e.g., phonemes. Sets of intonational intervals are stored to simulate or recognize different dialects or languages from a single set of stored phonemes. The interval rules preferably use a prosodic analysis of the phoneme string or other cues to apply a given interval to the phoneme string. A second set of interval data is provided for semantic information. The speech system is based on the observation that each dialect and language possess its own set of musical relationships or intonation intervals. These musical relationships are used by a human listener to identify the particular dialect or language. The speech system may be either a speech synthesis or speech analysis tool or may be a combined speech synthesis/analysis system.

Webern's Wrong Key-Signature

The attribution of influence in music – usually, the influence of one composer on another – is a notoriously slippery business, one whose results are apt to seem arbitrary and impressionistic. Recently musicologists, inspired by the example of Harold Bloom in literature (The Anxiety of Influence, 1973, and several subsequent works) have tried to make the study of influence more rigorous. This has sometimes meant the setting up of a formidable theoretical apparatus, the complexity of which can make one lose sight of the simplicity of the musical relationships involved. The pursuit of theory easily becomes an end in itself: as one commentator has observed, references to Bloom, in such discussions, have now become more or less de rigueur, with authors rushing to demonstrate their familiarity with misprision, revisionary ratios and other Bloomian categories. As will be apparent, I am not primarily interested in influence as a matter of anxiety: influence when it shows itself is usually obvious enough (by which I mean obvious to the ear), and the obviousness of the connexion tends to make it uninteresting and further discussion redundant.

Haskore music notation – An algebra of music –

AbstractWe have developed a simple algebraic approach to music description and composition calledHaskore. In this framework, musical objects consist of primitive notions such as notes and rests, operations to transform musical objects such as transpose and tempo-scaling, and operations to combine musical objects to form more complex ones, such as concurrent and sequential composition. When these simple notions are embedded into a functional language such as Haskell, rather complex musical relationships can be expressed clearly and succinctly. Exploiting the algebraic properties of Haskore, we have further defined a notion ofliteral performance(devoid of articulation) through whichobservationally equivalentmusical objects can be determined. With this basis many useful properties can be proved, such as commutative, associative, and distributive properties of various operators. An algebra of music thus surfaces.

What Is Old and What Is New in the Traditional Music of the Volga-Kama Region

The theory based on the similarity of melody types in the Hungarian, Cheremis and Chuvash folk music and observed first by Bela Bartok, then Zoltan Kodaly emerged roughly 60 years ago. According to it, this musical congruence points to an origin preceding the conquest of the territory of Hungary by the Magyars: Thus the counterparts of the supposedly oldest Hungarian fifth-shift melodies can still be found among the present-day inhabitants of the one-time country of origin. In the thirties the musical material collected among the related (Finno-Ugrian and Turkic) peoples and available for comparative research some 600 to 700 melodies was published, except for 24 phonographed songs, in foreign collections. As a result, the melodies were not within easy reach for Hungarian scholars and none of the items was associated with Hungarian field experiences. Unfortunately, even the specific knowledge of musical notation was missing in several cases. Nevertheless, on the basis of mainly Mountain Cheremis and Northern Chuvash melodies it became obvious that a relationship, however distant in time and space, could be demonstrated by means of the pentatonic scale and the fifth-shift structure, respectively. This theory was apparently supported by historical facts and the already two hundred-year old linguistic research. In addition to the similarity of melody types there emerged some closely related Hungarian, Cheremis and Chuvash melodies as well. This circumstance strengthened the theory of musical relationship which seemed to be almost incontestable by then. We also have to take into consideration that the Hungarian pentatonic music which was meant to improve the whole Hungarian musical culture, and the

A pilot study of music therapy in the treatment of children with developmental delay

In a crossover study of music therapy for children who are developmentally delayed, the children in the initial treatment group change more than the children on the waiting list. When the waiting list group are treated and then tested, the newly treated children catch up in their development. Such changes can be demonstrated at a level of clinical significance. There is a continuing improvement in hearing and speech, hand—eye co-ordination, and personal—social interaction. Music therapy seems to have an effect on personal relationship, emphasising the positive benefits of active listening and performing, and this in turn sets the context for developmental change. A further investigation of the data revealed the importance of hand—eye co-ordination for developmental changes. The active element of musical playing, which demands the skill of hand—eye co-ordination, appears to play a significant role in developmental changes as they occur in the therapeutic musical relationship.

Shostakovich's Tenth Symphony and The Musical Expression of Cognitively Complex Emotions

In his influential book, Vom Musikalisch-Schinen, Eduard Hanslick argued that it is impossible to represent the emotions in music because music cannot represent the "conceptions" or cognitive content which help to define the emotions. "The feeling of hope cannot be separated from the representation of a future happy state which we compare with the present; ... Love cannot be thought without the representation of a beloved person, without desire and striving after felicity, glorification and possession of a particular object."' Yet music cannot represent these ideas or objects; all it can do is to represent the "dynamic" aspects of emotional life. Hanslick's words have echoed down the years, influencing both philosophers of music and music theorists and critics. Among philosophers, Susanne Langer repeats almost verbatim Hanslick's strictures on emotional expression in music, claiming that music can represent only the dynamic aspects of emotional life, its patterns of motion and rest, tension and relaxation. On her view, music "reveals the rationale of feelings, the rhythm and pattern of their rise and decline and intertwining, to our minds ..."2 Unlike Langer, Peter Kivy believes that music can express particular emotions. In The Corded Shell he argues that some musical phrases mimic human gestures which are expressive of a particular state of human feeling, and other musical features are expressive of particular feelings by virtue of some conventional association. Music can sound like a person loudly lamenting or joyfully jumping; or it can sound sad just because music in a low register and the minor key conventionally signifies sadness.3 Significantly, however, virtually all the musical examples of expressive music which Kivy cites are confined to a very limited set of feelings, mostly joy, sadness, and restlessness. The vast majority are also accompanied by words, which, of course, help to establish expressiveness. In a more recent book on music, Music Alone, which deals with "pure" or "absolute" music, Kivy continues to maintain that music can express particular emotions, but he echoes Hanslick in arguing that the emotions which music can express are only those which need not be directed toward any kind of object. Music can be sad or joyful or restless without being sad, joyful, or restless about anything in particular.4 This requirement would seem to rule out the possibility that music can express cognitively complex emotions. Like Hanslick, Kivy seems to think that it simply cannot be done. Tendencies in twentieth-century music and music theory have helped to establish the notion that music cannot express complex human emotions. In the second quarter of the century, for example, Igor Stravinsky was at the forefront of a reaction against romantic music and musical aesthetics, claiming that "music is, by its very nature, essentially powerless to express anything at all,"5 while cultivating a more reticent neoclassical style. Somewhat later, the serialists and advocates of aleatoric music began to experiment with mathematical procedures that increased the temptation to think of music in the medieval way, as belonging with arithmetic, geometry, and astronomy in the quadrivium. More recently, the dominant theoretical systems, including Schenkerian theory and set theory, have tended to concentrate on what they take to be music's internal relationships, emphasizing rigidly recursive structural hierarchies and quasi-mathematical manipulations and terminology, respectively. In the last decade, however, a number of

Modulatory Techniques in Seventeenth-Century Music: Schutz, a Case in Point

In his recent review of the English translation of Bernhard Meier's pioneering study, The Modes of Classical Vocal Polyphony, Anthony Cummings raises the question of tonal coherence in sixteenth-century polyphony. 'Certainly in most pieces', he observes, 'there is no tendency whatever to explore independent tonal areas, and therefore no tonal movement - no modulation - from one such area to another. He then goes on to refer to large-scale tonal coherence as a familiar property of eighteenth-century music. My intention here is not at all to argue with such remarks, but to draw attention to a lacuna in discussions of tonality or tonal coherence. That lacuna is the seventeenth-century. Establishing a tonal centre by modulation - moving away from and returning to a primary 'key' by activating related or even remote tonal areas - is by no means foreign to the harmonic language of the seventeenth century. Although assigning a seventeenth-century piece to a particular mode in a closed modal system may not yield 'a normative background of expectable musical relationships', as Harold Powers puts it, since 'modality is not a precompositional assumption for Renaissance polyphony in the way in which tonality is precompositional for 18th-19th-century art music',' one nevertheless finds harmonic behaviour and modulatory techniques in seventeenth-century music in general and Schtitz's music in particular that presuppose the modal system. What places some 'modulations' within the realm of pre-tonal music is precisely the lack of expectable musical relationships. A clarification of the term 'modulation' is in order here. The seventeenth century still used the term in the classical sense of linear exposition of melody or motive. It is not that our modern concept of tonal movement - modulation - did not exist; theorists merely referred to it by different names. They do not elaborate, however, on how to move from one tonal region to the next. It is often only through passing references in their work that we can infer ways of moving away from the central mode or tonal centre. In his Tractatus compositionis augmentatus Christoph Bernhard discusses,