Musical Aptitude Tests Research Articles

The Effect of Harmonic Accompaniment on Primary Two Children's Developmental Music Aptitude

Studies on children's musical development have received increased attention than previously. The present study aims to investigate the effect on the use of bamboo xylophone as harmonic accompaniment on primary two children's music development. The study was focused on the following specific problems (1) Is there a difference with an additional harmonic accompaniment in the development of tonal aptitude in primary two children? (2) Is there a difference with an additional harmonic accompaniment in the development of rhythm aptitude in primary two children? Four classes (n=80) from two public schools in the city of Kota Kinabalu were randomly assigned to two different groups: a control (n=40) and an experimental group (n=40). Both groups of children sat for a pre-test and post-test on Gordon's Intermediate Measures of Music Audiation tonal subtest (IMMAT) and rhythm subtest (IMMAR). The results indicated no significant difference in the music aptitude test between the groups (p > .05). However, the mean gain score percentage of children in the experimental group increased more than that of the control group. The results suggest that a future study should include longitudinal data, larger sample size, different types of musical instruments and children's interest in learning music.

Musical training and musical ability: Effects on chord discrimination

The effects of Western musical training and musical ability on the discrimination of intervallic ordering in both tonal and post-tonal chords were examined using an oddball-paradigm experiment. Participants with different levels of formal musical training (composers and theorists, other professional musicians, and non-professionals) but with high scores from a musical aptitude test (the KMT) were recruited. The results of the study revealed a main effect for the type of musical training: composers’ and theorists’ scores differed markedly from the scores of the other participant groups, whereas professionals and non-professionals had similar response profiles. The discrimination between intervallic orderings of even the most familiar tonal chords seemed to require analysis-oriented training.

Pitch-induced responses in the right auditory cortex correlate with musical ability in normal listeners

Previous work compellingly shows the existence of functional and structural differences in human auditory cortex related to superior musical abilities observed in professional musicians. In this study, we investigated the relationship between musical abilities and auditory cortex activity in normal listeners who had not received a professional musical education. We used functional MRI to measure auditory cortex responses related to auditory stimulation per se and the processing of pitch and pitch changes, which represents a prerequisite for the perception of musical sequences. Pitch-evoked responses in the right lateral portion of Heschl's gyrus were correlated positively with the listeners' musical abilities, which were assessed using a musical aptitude test. In contrast, no significant relationship was found for noise stimuli, lacking any musical information, and for responses induced by pitch changes. Our results suggest that superior musical abilities in normal listeners are reflected by enhanced neural encoding of pitch information in the auditory system.

The sound of music: Differentiating musicians using a fast, musical multi-feature mismatch negativity paradigm

Musicians’ skills in auditory processing depend highly on instrument, performance practice, and on level of expertise. Yet, it is not known though whether the style/genre of music might shape auditory processing in the brains of musicians. Here, we aimed at tackling the role of musical style/genre on modulating neural and behavioral responses to changes in musical features. Using a novel, fast and musical sounding multi-feature paradigm, we measured the mismatch negativity (MMN), a pre-attentive brain response, to six types of musical feature change in musicians playing three distinct styles of music (classical, jazz, rock/pop) and in non-musicians. Jazz and classical musicians scored higher in the musical aptitude test than band musicians and non-musicians, especially with regards to tonal abilities. These results were extended by the MMN findings: jazz musicians had larger MMN-amplitude than all other experimental groups across the six different sound features, indicating a greater overall sensitivity to auditory outliers. In particular, we found enhanced processing of pith and sliding up to pitches in jazz musicians only. Furthermore, we observed a more frontal MMN to pitch and location compared to the other deviants in jazz musicians and left lateralization of the MMN to timbre in classical musicians. These findings indicate that the characteristics of the style/genre of music played by musicians influence their perceptual skills and the brain processing of sound features embedded in a musical context. Musicians’ brain is hence shaped by the type of training, musical style/genre, and listening experiences.

Music Therapy Career Aptitude Test

The purpose of the Music Therapy Career Aptitude Test (MTCAT) was to measure the affective domain of music therapy students including their self-awareness as it relates to the music therapy career, value in human development, interest in general therapy, and aptitude for being a professional music therapist. The MTCAT was administered to 113 music therapy students who are currently freshman or sophomores in an undergraduate music therapy program or in the first year of a music therapy master's equivalency program. The results of analysis indicated that the MTCAT is normally distributed and that all 20 questions are significantly correlated with the total test score of the MTCAT. The reliability of the MTCAT was considerably high (Cronbach's Coefficient Alpha=0.8). The criterion-related validity was examined by comparing the MTCAT scores of music therapy students with the scores of 43 professional music therapists. The correlation between the scores of students and professionals was found to be statistically significant. The results suggests that normal distribution, internal consistency, homogeneity of construct, item discrimination, correlation analysis, content validity, and criterion-related validity in the MTCAT may be helpful in predicting music therapy career aptitude and may aid in the career decision making process of college music therapy students.

Musical aptitude definition and measure validation: Ecological validity can endanger the construct validity of musical aptitude tests.

Definitions of musical aptitude as well as musical aptitude tests frequently are criticized for low ecological validity. In many cases, however, the demand for ecological validity can actually make a test worse as a measure of musical aptitude because a maximally ecologically valid test is necessarily multidimensional. A test that is devised to measure a psychological construct such as musical aptitude should be reasonably homogeneous. Defining musical aptitude as auditory structuring ability is suggested as a compromise between homogeneity and explanatory power. Central aspects of construct validation of an auditory structuring test are presented as examples of theory-driven validation where ecological validity is not the first criterion. These aspects show that the test (a) measures a music-related property, (b) is not much dependent of training in music, and (c) measures sound structuring instead of hearing absolute qualities of sound. (ProQuest-CSA LLC: ... denotes obscured text omitted.) Construct Validity as an Ideal Definitions of musical aptitude and consequently, musical aptitude tests, frequently are strongly criticized. According to the criticism, tests often have very low validity or do not measure musical aptitude at all (Choksy, 2003). A usual complaint is that tests of musical aptitude do not predict real-world musical skills or behaviors well; that is, they have poor predictive or ecological validity (Demorest, 1995; Hallam & Shaw, 2002; Kinarskaya & Winner, 1997; Mota, 1997). In many cases, this criticism is warranted. However, the purpose and possibilities of musical aptitude measures often are misunderstood and consequently, unrealistic demands are made on them. Tests may be better or worse, of course, but difficulties in predicting realworld musical performances do not automatically mean flaws in a test or the theory behind it. Psychological tests are devised to measure psychological constructs such as personality, intelligence or musical aptitude. A test is valid to the extent it measures the target construct. In other words, validity should be understood as construct validity (Cronbach, 1984). This principle has important consequences. Gembris (1997) sees three distinct phases in the definition of musicality. The first is the phenomenological approach that was the main trend in the 19th century, although traces of it are present also in the 20th century. This approach had a close link to the music and aesthetics of its time; understanding of musical beauty was an important ingredient in the concept of musicality, for instance. The second phase, the psychometric approach, was dominant in most of the 20th century. Its main interests were objective definition of musicality and standardized tests to measure it. According to Gembris, the third phase, the musical meaning approach, is the most important one today. It views the psychometric approach as narrow and mechanistic and stresses the importance of the ability to generate meaning in music. The purpose of the present article is to (a) show that problems observed in the psychometric approach often are not real but rather consequences of misunderstanding central aspects of construct definition and test validity, and (b) describe the validation of a musical aptitude test as a concrete example of the preferred theory-driven validation process. The sources of problems in validation roughly can be seen in two groups: first, using composite validity criteria as if they were unidimensional, and second, using subject groups that do not represent the whole distribution of the construct in question. Maximizing ecological validity usually demands the use of composite measures as validity criteria. When a composite of several constructs is predicted, the best predictor also is multidimensional. In such a case, the predictor and the criterion contain the same properties in the same proportions. Using success in music studies as a validity criterion for a musical aptitude test can be taken as an example (Karma, 1982). …

Understanding Music Aptitude: Teachers' Interpretations

The purpose of this research was to examine teachers' understandings of music aptitude. The problem was to examine how teachers select, check, suspend, regroup, and transform their understanding when they estimate the music aptitude of their students and then obtain standardized music aptitude test scores from their students. Ten classroom teachers from South Korea and the United States wrote about their experiences throughout the study and, at the end, participated in an individual interview. Categories emerging from the symbolic interactionist approach to the data included: estimation criteria, reactions of surprise when teachers informally compared their estimates to students' test scores, recognition of subjective aspects when estimating, the need to pay attention to individuals during music instruction, and requests to learn more about music aptitude. Teachers transformed their understandings of music aptitude while interacting with their students. We recommend similar experiences for teachers who seek to further understand music aptitude.

Dyslexia and music: measuring musical timing skills.

Over the last few decades, a growing amount of research has suggested that dyslexics have particular difficulties with skills involving accurate or rapid timing, including musical timing skills. It has been hypothesised that music training may be able to remediate such timing difficulties, and have a positive effect on fundamental perceptual skills that are important in the development of language and literacy skills (Overy, 2000). In order to explore this hypothesis further, the nature and extent of dyslexics' musical difficulties need to be examined in more detail. In the present study, a collection of musical aptitude tests (MATs) were designed specifically for dyslexic children, in order to distinguish between a variety of musical skills and sub-skills. 15 dyslexic children (age 7-11, mean age 9.0) and 11 control children (age 7-10, mean age 8.9) were tested on the MATs, and their scores were compared. Results showed that the dyslexic group scored higher than the control group on 3 tests of pitch skills (possibly attributable to slightly greater musical experience), but lower than the control group on 7 out of 9 tests of timing skills. Particular difficulties were noted on one of the tests involving rapid temporal processing, in which a subgroup of 5 of the dyslexic children (33%) (mean age 8.4) was found to account for all the significant error. Also, an interesting correlation was found between spelling ability and the skill of tapping out the rhythm of a song, which both involve the skill of syllable segmentation. These results support suggestions that timing is a difficulty area for dyslexic children, and suggest that rhythm skills and rapid skills may need particular attention in any form of musical training with dyslexics.

서울지역 초등학생들을 위한 음악 적성검사 도구 개발

The ultimate goal of this study is to develop a standardized music aptitude test, for measuring musical potential and ability of korean children. As a part of procedure, this thesis developed test items, field tested the developed items in Seoul area, and has secured relevant statistical results for the developed test items. More specifically, this study conducted the followings: 1) review of literature and related studies have conducted, 2) based on the findings, five elements of music-rhythm, pitch, timbre, tempo, and dynamics are chosen as components of the music aptitude test, 3) one hundred and five test items (21 test items for each element) have developed by the researchers. The developed 105 test items were field tested twice and a reliability, validity, and causal effects factors are examined by using relevant statistical techniques. As the result, 12 test items of rhythm element, 15 test items of pitch element, 13 test items of timbre element, 10 test items of tempo element, and 13 test items of dynamics element are selected as valid test items Although, the unselected test items could be used to measure the related musical ability, in order to ensure the effectiveness of the test, they are eliminated from the test items Thus, it could be concluded that finally selected test items are highly reliable and 、ralid (Cronbach’s a= .8851) to measure the ability of the related musical elements. It is highly recommended to develope web-based music aptitude test for continuing research and test item analysis. Based on the constructed web-based data base, a continuing test item development for securing a higher reliability and validity should be conducted. The researchers also believe that through the continuing study of predictive and authentic validity test, the standardization of this test could be obtained more accurate calibration.

Why Has Musical Aptitude Assessment Fallen Flat? And What Can We Do About It?

Tests of musical aptitudes are reviewed. Despite decades of research and at least modest evidence for the validity of such tests (particularly regarding their ability to assess a mechanical-acoustic factor), the objective assessment of musical aptitudes is not part of the standard career assessment battery. Reasons for this situation are suggested. A renewed effort to develop musical aptitude tests is recommended, particularly along the lines already established through the research programs of Karma (1994), Dowling and Harwood (1986), and Vispoel (1992).

Computerized-Adaptive and Self-Adapted Music Listening Tests: Psychometric Features and Motivational Benefits

In this study, we compared the efficiency, reliability, validity, and motivational benefits of computerized-adaptive and self-adapted music-listening tests (referred to hereafter as CAT and SAT, respectively). Junior high school general music students completed a tonal memory CAT, a tonal memory SAT, standardized music aptitude and achievement tests; and questionnaires assessing test anxiety, demographics, and attitudes about the CAT and SAT. Standardized music test scores and music course grades served as criterion measures in the concurrent validity analysis. Results showed that the SAT elicited more favorable attitudes from examinees and yielded ability estimates that were higher and less correlated with test anxiety than did the CAT. The CAT, however, required fewer items and less administration time to match the reliability and concurrent validity of the SAT and yielded higher levels of reliability and concurrent validity than the SAT when test length was held constant. These results reaffirm importa...

Precursors of Musical Aptitude Testing: From the Greeks through the Work of Francis Galton

Carl E. Seashore's tests of musical aptitude, originally published in 1919, were a logical outgrowth of first, centuries of research and thinking on sensory discrimination and specification, and second, applications to psychological research of Charles Darwin's theory of evolution. These two fields came together when English anthropologist Francis Galton (1822-1911) devised tests of sensory perception to test individual mental capacity in the 1870s and 1880s. Galton, who modeled his tests on those devised previously by physicists, included measures of musical perception in his test batteries. He believed that individual differences are quantifiable and that discrete measures of sensory acuity, including musical discrimination, would provide at least an indirect measure of intelligence. Galton influenced American psychologist James Cattell (1860-1944), who in turn influenced Seashore. Because Seashore, like all experimental psychologists of his day, was a sensory psychologist, he produced tests that were criticized from the beginning for being sensory and atomistic. Nevertheless, Seashore's work fired the imaginations and profoundly influenced the work of the first generation of American music education researchers.

Validating Tests of Musical Aptitude

Validating Tests of Musical Aptitude

Divergent Production Abilities as Constructs of Musical Creativity

The investigation concerned the construction of a test of musical creativity that would assess the hypothesized divergent production abilities of music fluency, flexibility, originality, elaboration, and quality in school instrumental music students. The developed test, Measures of Musical Divergent Production (MMDP), was based on models of Guilford and Torrance. Tests were scored for the number of improvised phrases produced, shifts of musical content, varied use of musical content, rarely used content, and music appeal. Evidence for content validity was provided by expert opinion. The multiple correlation of the five ability scores with teacher ratings of musical creativity was .57. Factors of fluency, flexibility, originality, and quality were demonstrated. Only quality scores were not distinct from measures of general intelligence. Reliability coefficients were moderately high. MMDP scores showed no pattern of correlation with selected music aptitude and achievement test scores and were not dependent on age, music training, or experience.

A Longitudinal Comparison of Four Music Achievement and Music Aptitude Tests

768 sixth-grade students enrolled in eight separate middle schools in the cities of Odessa, Henderson, and Gladewater, Texas, were given the Tonal Imagery and Rhythm Imagery tests from the Musical Aptitude Profile along with the complete Measures of Musical Abilities battery. After a year and a half of instrumental study, Music Achievement Test, Part 2 and Iowa Tests of Music Literacy, Level One were administered to all students remaining in the programs. Results of the study indicated the MAP Tonal Imagery was the most efficacious of the aptitude tests, while the ITML battery possessed the highest validity for measuring music achievement, based on teachers' subjective performance ratings. Interrelationships among certain achievement subtests were rather high, indicating that in some cases two subtests were measuring similar areas of achievement. Using these as a guide, it was possible to select a group of subtests from both the MAT and ITML batteries that were relatively unrelated and at the same time agreed satisfactorily with the teachers' professional judgments of their students.

Relationship among Musical Aptitude and Musical Achievement Test Scores of Non-Select College Students Enrolled in a Music Fundamentals Course

Relationship among Musical Aptitude and Musical Achievement Test Scores of Non-Select College Students Enrolled in a Music Fundamentals Course

Use of Standardized Tests of Musical Aptitude with University Freshmen Music Majors

This investigation compared the reliabilities, intercorrelations, and appropriateness of use of three standardized music tests when administered to entering university freshman music majors. The three tests compared were Aliferis Music Achievement Test, Musical Aptitude Profile, and Iowa Tests of Music Literacy, Levels 5 and 6. All tests functioned with adequate reliability. Intercorrelations within and among tests revealed some overlapping between achievement tests, but little relationship with aptitude test content. Each test is basically multidimensional. It was concluded that a wide range of information could best be obtained by administering the Musical Aptitude Profile, and a music achievement test with suitable content. Although the Aliferis Test was the only one of the three tests originally designed for entering college music majors, the Musical Aptitude Test and the Iowa Test of Musical Literacy may also be appropriately employed.

Predicting Success in Beginning Instrumental Music Through Use of Selected Tests

The purpose of this study was to investigate the possibility of using several different variables as predictors of success in beginning instrumental music. The variables were: tests of musical aptitude, academic achievement, intelligence, and psychomotor skills measured by a tapping board, a tachistoscope, a visual choice reaction timer, and a rotary pursuit apparatus. A discriminant function analysis was used to analyze the data. All variables were found to make a unique contribution to the prediction of success in beginning instrumental music.

Investigation of the Relationships Between Music Perception and Music Performance

The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationships between the levels of music perception and music performance attained by selected high school bands. The following variables were selected by analysis to determine the extent of their contribution to the relationships: music perception, music performance, music aptitude, ensemble experience, socioeconomic status, amount of instruction in music history and music theory, academic achievement, band literature performed, students' major instruments, amount of directors' teaching experience, and directors' educational backgrounds. The contest ratings earned by the selected bands were considered measures of music performance. Standardized tests used in the study were the Schimke Test of Music Perception, Drake Musical Aptitude Tests, and various academic achievement batteries. The data were submitted to a multiple regression and correlation analysis and analysis of variance. The various analyses of the data indicated that significant relationships existed between music perception and each of the following variables: music aptitude, academic achievement, ensemble experience,- and music history and music theory instruction. Nonsignificant results were found between music perception and the following: literature ratings, directors' backgrounds, socioeconomic status, music performance, and students' major instruments.

Sex and emotional responses to classical music.

Musical selections have been found to evoke definite types of emotional and mood change reactions from listeners (Hevner, 1934; Capurso, 1948; Shatin, 1970). Comparisons of the responses of men and women to music, however, seem very limited. Breger ( 1970) compared the affective responses of men and women to music and other complex sounds and found that men and women rated sounds similarly in pleasantness. Since men typically score lower on musical aptitude tests and generally show less interest in and esthetic appreciation for music (Anastasi, 1958) than women it seems likely that these differences might lead to a sex difference in emotional responsiveness to music. The influence of sex differences and familiarity with music on positive vs negative emotional responses to selections of classical music was examined. Thirty men and 30 women who were not music majors but were enrolled in a music literature course served as Ss. Each was asked to indicate how familiar they were with classical music and to indicate whether each of four recorded musical selections played for them was srimulating, triumphant, and or nor (from Capurso, 1948). Ss marked their responses during a 2-min. waiting period between the playing of each of the selections. The numbers of reports of stimulating, triumphant, and joyous were tabulated, as was the distribution of self-reported familiarity with classical music. Chi square analysis of the distribution of positive responses ro the music as a function of sex and familiarity indicated reliable difference~ from a chance distribution of positive responses (X2 = 14.37, df = 2, p < .Dl). Men reported less familiarity with classical music than did women, and women reported more positive responses to music than did men. However, men with low familiarity with music reported more positive responses than men with high familiarity with music while women with low familiarity with music reported fewer positive responses than women with high familiarity with music. The data suggest that, while sex and familiarity seem to affect positive responses to music, there may also be an interaction between sex and familiarity.