Mushroom Growers Research Articles

Edible mushroom cultivation for rural development in Himachal Pradesh

Commercial production of mushrooms represents unique exploitation of the microbial technology for the bio conservation of the agricultural, industrial, forestry and horticultural wastes into nutritious food. Mandi district was purposively selected for the study due to sufficient number of mushroom growers in the district. A sample of 60 growers was selected by proportional allocation method. For the selection of the sample two stage random sampling technique was adopted. The overall net returns per rupee of investment were more for large growers i.e. Rs 1.27. In order to understand the determinants of mushroom production, regression analysis was done using Cobb-Douglas production function. Three channels of marketing were followed by the growers in the study area but the (producer # retailer # consumer) was the most important and followed by 56.06% of growers through which 44.09% of mushroom produce was marketed. On overall farms, marketed surplus was 78.67% which varied from 56.96% on small farms to 86.38% on the large farms.

Agronomic Qualitative Viability of Spent Pleurotus Substrate and its Mixture with Wheat Bran and a Commercial Supplement

AbstractIn this study the agronomic viability of Pleurotus ostreatus (Jacq.) P. Kumm., is studied by reusing the spent substrates previously used in crops of the same mushrooms. After the physical and chemical characterization of the substrates, we have evaluated the qualitative production parameters in one growing season. As base material, the experiment was arranged with wheat straw (WS) and spent Pleurotus substrate (SPS) to generate prepared substrates, alone and mixed with different proportions of wheat bran (WB) and the commercial supplement Calprozime®. With the substrates supplemented with 300 g of WB + 120 g Calprozime®, we obtained generally higher ash (8.43%) and protein contents (24.75%) in the mushrooms. These substrates also achieved acceptable breaking strength values (Bs) (182.25 N) and compression energy (CE) (944.63 mJ) in the harvested mushrooms. In turn, these substrates promote lightness (60.31) and yellow‐blue (b*) (12.93) chromaticity of the harvested mushrooms. Consequently, these composts degraded by Pleurotus ostreatus formulations could be a low cost substrate, selective and balanced nutrient for the growth and development of the oyster mushrooms.Practical ApplicationsSubstrates supplemented with 300 g of wheat bran (WB) + 120 g Calprozime® could be integrated through new formulations and methodologies while lowering production costs and reducing the environmental impact of unusual waste. Spent Pleurotus substrate (SPS) is considered to be environmentally unfriendly, undesirable, and presents a solid waste disposal problem for mushroom growers. If SPS could be easily available at a low cost it could be integrated into new formulations and methodologies, diminish the environmental impact of the waste produced during mushroom cultivation, limit the grower's dependence on straw, and decrease the environmental impact of its overgrowing accumulation.

Discrimination of mushroom disease‐related mould species based solely on unprocessed chromatograms

AbstractAgaricus bisporus A15 species (bisporic button mushroom) and its two main mould diseases (Mycogone perniciosa and Trichoderma aggressivum) were analysed using headspace solid‐phase microextraction sampling coupled with gas chromatograpy–mass spectrometry analysis. The presence or absence of mushroom disease‐related moulds can easily be detected and monitored in the air by headspace solid‐phase microextraction gas chromatograpy–mass spectrometry via their emitted microbial volatile organic compounds. Detrended fluctuation analysis (DFA) was first applied to distinguish different mould samples based on their unprocessed total ion chromatograms, which describe the air polluted by microbial volatile organic compounds. A two‐dimensional plot, generated from the results of DFA, visualizes the relationship of the analysed samples. The pattern found by DFA was compared with the pattern found by the traditionally applied principal component analysis. Cluster analysis (using Euclidean distance and Ward's method) of the principal component analysis scores and DFA coefficients showed characteristic groupings. A methodology is introduced, which uses the unprocessed chromatogram, without any time‐consuming feature extraction and can indicate the presence of infected samples. The proposed methodology is able to give a support to the mushroom growers to indicate different mushroom disease‐related infection via air monitoring. Additionally, DFA is a sample‐independent and universal method. Hence, it can be also applied to distinguish unprocessed chromatograms produced by any other analytical equipment. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

An Economic Analysis of Mushroom Marketing in Jammu and Kashmir

Mushroom is also one of the important crops grown in Jammu province of J&K state during winter season. The objective of the present investigation was to study the different marketing channel and marketing efficiency. Four types of marketing channels were identified being followed by the mushroom growers in the study area, the first one channel was the ‘mushroom grower-wholesaler-retailer-consumer ’ ’, second channel was the ‘mushroom grower-retailer-consumer ’, third channel was the ‘mushroom grower-wholesaler-consumer ’and fourth channel was the ‘mushroom grower-consumer ’. The marketing efficiency was higher in the case of marketing Channel-TV with the estimated figures standing at 1.75 followed by the 1.25, 1.16 and 1.06 in the case of marketing Channel-Ill, II, and I, respectively. It was concluded that the marketing was not that efficiently being done as it could have been otherwise, provided a good infrastructure and favourable govt. policies. It was suggested that the regulation of the Fruit and Vegetable markets in Jammu need to be regularised at the earliest so as to curb the menaces of marketing malpractices in the study area.

버섯 병재배시 배지의 수분함량 조절을 위한 계산식과 활용방법

본 보고는 버섯재배 농장에서 사용하는 배지 재료 및 혼합배지의 수분함량; 입병한 배지의 배지량, 건조무게, 액체량, 가비중; 배지혼합기에 투입하는 배지재료의 건조량, 수분량, 재료별 혼합비율; 배지의 수분함량 조절을 위한 물 소요량과 보충량, 조제한 배지의 총량을 산출하는 계산식을 만들었다. 그리고 각각을 자동으로 계산하는 엑셀파일을 작성하였다. 이 계산식들과 엑셀파일은 병재배 농가에서 배지재료비 절감, 연중 병당 양분함량 및 수분함량 유지와 새로운 배지조성을 만들기 위하여 활용할 수 있을 것이다. 이때 매일 계속되는 재배과정에서 수량 기복이나 품질 저하를 최소화 하면서 연중 안정생산에 기여할 것으로 기대한다. This study was done the calculation formula for calculating the below item. That is the moisture content of the substrates raw materials, water content of the mixed substrates; the amount of media, dry weight, amount of liquid, bulk density in the bottle; dried materials volume, water volume, mixing ratio in a substrates mixing materials; water requirement amount, replenishment amount for water content control of the substrates and the total amount of substrates. And each was prepared in an Excel file for automatically calculated. The calculation of the Excel file will be able to take advantage for the mushroom growers; to make raw material costs, per bottle nutrient content and moisture content maintained throughout the year and new media composition. At this time we expect, while minimizing the quantity or deterioration in the daily ups and downs continued growing courses throughout the year contribute to stabilizing production.

Reducing radioactive cesium transfer from sawdust media to Pleurotus ostreatus fruiting bodies

The Fukushima Daiichi nuclear power plant was damaged, and radionuclides such as 137Cs were spread into the environment. Three years have passed since the accident, and ingestion of foods contaminated with radioactive material through the food chain is a health hazard of concern. Mushrooms are known for absorbing radionuclides, and methods for reducing fruiting body radioactivity are needed. We investigated radiocesium transfer activities and methods of reducing radiocesium transfer from sawdust media into fruiting bodies using Pleurotus ostreatus. Fruiting body radiocesium activity increased linearly with increasing media radioactivity. The radiocesium activities of fruiting bodies cultivated in different sawdust media were 0.2–0.9-fold (on wet-weight basis) and 1.3–3.7-fold (on dry-weight basis) higher than those of sawdust media, showing that transfer rates vary with cultivation conditions. From the reducing fruiting body radiocesium activity tests by medium additives, Prussian blue was effective and nanoparticle insoluble Prussian blue was more efficient than soluble Prussian blue. However, nanoparticle insoluble Prussian blue is more expensive than soluble Prussian blue. If mushroom growers use Prussian blue, it will be necessary to determine the type and the additional amounts that correspond to used strains, consumer needs, commercial value and cost.

Shiitake‐Derived β‐Glucan, Lentinan, Reduces CCL3/MIP‐1α Production via Down‐Modulation of TLR2‐ And TLR4‐Mediated NFκB Activation And TLR2 Expression in Human THP‐1 Monocytes

High levels of the chemokine CCL3/MIP‐1α are associated with various human diseases. In our previous study, shiitake mushrooms (Lentinula edodes), consumed as a whole food, had an inhibitory effect on MIP‐1α production in human ex vivo PBMC. We hypothesized that this effect was due to lentinan, a β‐1,3;1,6‐glucan, acting in an anti‐inflammatory manner, and that the change in MIP‐1α production was under Toll‐like receptor (TLR) and NF‐kB regulation. This study examined the mechanism using the human THP‐1 monocyte cell line. Pam3CSK4 and LPS were used as TLR ligands to induce TLR2 and TLR4 activation, respectively. We showed that lentinan attenuated TLR2‐ and TLR4‐induced MIP‐1α production and NF‐kB activation of the THP‐1 cells. Flow cytometric analysis revealed that both surface and intracellular levels of TLR2 were decreased by lentinan. However, neutralization of TLR2 did not blunt the inhibitory effect of lentinan, suggesting that the effect was not due to TLR2 alone. Cytochalasin D, a β‐glucan internalization inhibitor, cancelled the inhibition of MIP‐1α production by lentinan, suggesting that the inhibitory activity of lentinan requires particle internalization. We conclude that the down‐modulation of TLR2 expression, suppression of NF‐kB activation and attenuation of MIP‐1α production by lentinan may all play important roles in the anti‐inflammatory effect of shiitake mushrooms. It is possible that lentinan may be effective as an anti‐inflammatory agent to prevent or control the diseases associated with excessive MIP‐1α production. Partially funded by US Mushroom Council, Australian Mushroom Growers Assn. and UF AES.

Efficiency of treatments for controlling Trichoderma spp during spawning in cultivation of lignicolous mushrooms.

Trichoderma spp is the cause of the green mold disease in mushroom cultivation production. Many disinfection treatments are commonly applied to lignocellulose substrates to prevent contamination. Mushroom growers are usually worried about the contaminations that may occur after these treatments during handling or spawning. The aim of this paper is to estimate the growth of the green mold Trichoderma sp on lignocellulose substrates after different disinfection treatments to know which of them is more effective to avoid contamination during spawning phase. Three different treatments were assayed: sterilization (121 °C), immersion in hot water (60 and 80 °C), and immersion in alkalinized water. Wheat straw, wheat seeds and Eucalyptus or Populus sawdust were used separately as substrates. After the disinfection treatments, bagged substrates were sprayed with 3 mL of suspension of conidia of Trichoderma sp (10(5) conidia/mL) and then separately spawned with Pleurotus ostreatus or Gymnopilus pampeanus. The growth of Trichoderma sp was evaluated based on a qualitative scale. Trichoderma sp could not grow on non-sterilized substrates. Immersions in hot water treatments and immersion in alkalinized water were also unfavorable treatments for its growth. Co- cultivation with mushrooms favored Trichoderma sp growth. Mushroom cultivation disinfection treatments of lignocellulose substrates influence on the growth of Trichoderma sp when contaminations occur during spawning phase. The immersion in hot water at 60 °C for 30 min or in alkalinized water for 36 h, are treatments which better reduced the contaminations with Trichoderma sp during spawning phase for the cultivation of lignicolous species.

The prevalence of respiratory symptoms among mushroom workers in Ireland.

Respiratory conditions such as asthma, bronchitis, hypersensitivity pneumonitis and upper airways symptoms have been ascribed to fungal exposures. Mushroom workers may be at risk of these as a consequence. To assess the prevalence of respiratory symptoms in mushroom workers. A cross-sectional study assessed 4 weeks of respiratory symptoms among mushroom workers divided into four categories of exposure, using a self-administered respiratory questionnaire and spirometry. The population of 191 subjects was predominantly (66%) from Eastern Europe; 61% were women and 39% were under 30. It included 73 growers, 38 composters, 26 administrators and 52 packers. Among all workers, there was a high prevalence (67%) of one or more respiratory symptoms which did not appear to vary by age, gender, pack-years of smoking or duration of employment. There was a significant improvement in respiratory symptoms in workers during absence from the workplace (P < 0.001). Spirometry readings across all groups were within normal values. Symptom profiles suggest that as many as 22 workers had symptoms of airways disease; 18 (82%) of these were mushroom growers. Growers were significantly more likely to have symptoms consistent with airways disease than all other workers, odds ratio 9.2 (95% CI 3.0-28.4). There was a high prevalence of respiratory symptoms among mushroom workers. Mushroom growers may be at high risk of airways disease, possibly from fungal antigens or related exposures.

Status and Prospect of Mushroom Industry in the Philippines

The mushroom industry in the Philippines has exacerbated since 1995, and the lowest production volume was 355 metric tons (MT) in 2009. Most of the mushroom consumed were imported from the different countries of South East Asia like China, Taiwan, Thailand, Malaysia, Korea and Japan. Growing mushrooms in the Philippines is economically feasible due to low- production cost, abundance of cheap substrates from agro wastes and high demand, which will be profitable to the mushroom growers. The study aimed to assess the production of mushroom in some parts of the Philippines, assess their potentials and introduce the non-sterile fermentation method of growing mushroom to the Philippine mushroom industry. There are ten varieties of edible and medicinal mushrooms grown in the Philippines such as Paddy straw mushroom, Oyster mushroom, Shiitake mushroom, Button mushroom, Ear fungi mushroom, Milky mushroom, Yellowish oyster mushroom, Reishi mushroom, Lion`'s mane mushroom, and King tuber oyster mushroom. Supporting the mushroom industry is vital in developing the rural economy, enhancing employment and income opportunity in the rural communities as well as providing income to the small farmers.

Marketing scenario and problems of mushroom growing in Punjab

Punjab state is known for its contribution to central pool in the production of rice and wheat grains. Various studies show the stagnation in productivity of these crops resulting decline in the returns. To augment their income some of the farmers adopted mushroom growing as subsidiary occupation of farming. The present study was undertaken in Amritsar and Gurdaspur districts of Punjab by taking a sample of 80 mushroom growers. The analysis brought out that Also, to examine the marketing structure of mushrooms, equal number of wholesalers and retailers were randomly selected from Amritsar and Gurdaspur markets. Mushroom growers were divided into three categories on the basis of bed area spawned using cumulative cube root frequency method. Marketed surplus of mushroom was about 99 per cent with meager family consumption, quantity given to labour as kind payment and to relatives. Marketing pattern revealed that the net price received by the growers was highest in producer → consumer channel while the marketing agency through which major chunk of produce transected was wholesaler. The production and marketing problems faced by mushroom growers were inadequate and poor quality of spawn, lack of assured market, price fluctuation, lack of canning and processing units and refrigerated storage. The study emphasized the need of canning and refrigeration facility for mushroom growers in case of higher production to stop distress sale and creating awareness among masses about nutritional importance of mushrooms to increase its consumption.

Oyster Mushroom Cultivation: a Women Friendly Profession for the Development of Rural West Bengal

Mushroom cultivation is considered as an alternative source of income to uplift the living standards of poor farmers and also to add high quality protein in their daily diets to eradicate malnutrition problems. Pleurotus spp (oyster mushroom) can easily be grown by the rural women with minimum efforts. Training was imparted during 2008 and 2009 by the Department of Plant Protection, Institute of Agriculture, Visva-Bharati, Sriniketan. The program focused on poor farmers having less than 0.5 ha of land. Training program included cultivation techniques, spawn preparation, substrates preparation, marketing of fresh product, preservation, etc. A total of 100 village women from four villages in two blocks of Birbhum district were selected for training. The knowledge level on cultivation method, food and nutritional value, economics of cultivation, profitability, etc. increased many folds after training. About 49% of trainees developed their skills in mushroom cultivation. While, 57% felt that mushroom cultivation is a profitable business and could be selected as an alternative business. An increase of 88% in total mushroom production and 89% increase in productivity were observed after training. Mushroom growers were increased from two to 19 after the training. The awareness program was very much successful in disseminating the knowledge of mushroom cultivation among the community which may contribute towards the overall development of the rural society.

Economic viability of button mushroom cultivation in Himachal Pradesh, India

The study shows that more than one-half of sample mushroom growers had 6 to 7 years of experience and remaining upto 5 years and mostly belonged to middle aged class of 40–60 years with matriculation and graduation level formal education. The business principles like knowledge, training prior adoption of activity, market survey, etc. were given due consideration and one-half of them started enterprise with small scale of 50 or even less number of spawned compost bags each weighing 20 kg with average unit investment of Rs 45, 428. Majority (80%) of them could grow a single crop with average yield of 3.62 kg per spawned compost bag which increased with the size from 3.52 kg on small to 3.64 kg per bag on large units showing low cost of production on large units due to scale economies. The financial test ratios revealed greater economic feasibility and profitability of mushroom cultivation on large units on account of higher investment and better marketing linkages with suppliers by ensuring adequate and assured supply of produce. Inadequate supply of spawned compost bags, quality spawned compost material, lack of remunerative prices and incidence of diseases were reported the major constraints requiring immediate attention of policy makers. For improving productivity, the study recommended the adequate supply of quality spawned compost bags at the doorsteps of growers at appropriate time and reasonable prices in addition to encouraging them to grow at least two crops in a year. Sale of mushroom under co-operative ambit especially by small growers may help them in fetching better price.

An assessment of energy modeling and input costs for greenhouse button mushroom production in Iran

Abstract This paper studies the energy balance between the input and the output per unit area for button mushroom production in Isfahan province of Iran. Data were obtained from 22 greenhouse button mushroom growers using a face to face questionnaire method. Sensitivity analysis of energy and cost inputs was carried out using the marginal physical productivity (MPP) technique. The results revealed that the total input and output energy use was to be 901 and 25.4 MJ m −2 , respectively. The highest share of energy consumption belongs to compost (49%) followed by diesel fuel (45%). Energy use efficiency, specific energy, net energy and energy intensiveness of greenhouse button mushroom production were 0.03, 59.5 MJ kg −1 , –875 MJ m −2 and 36.1 MJ $ −1 , respectively. Econometric model evaluation showed that the impact of compost and human labor energy inputs were significantly positive on yield. The sensitivity analysis of energy inputs indicated that among the inputs, human labor has the highest MPP value of energy inputs. Cost analysis revealed that total cost of button mushroom production was obtained as 24.9 $ m −2 . Accordingly, the benefit–cost ratio and productivity were obtained as 1.15 and 0.62 kg $ −1 , respectively. It is suggested that new heating system with high thermal efficiency are to be used, in order to improve the greenhouse environment as well as reduction of diesel fuel consumption.

Molecular characterization of Pleurotus ostreatus commercial strains by random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD)

The genetic variability of strains of Pleurotus ostreatus expresses basidiomata with distinct morphological characteristics and responses of different production. Therefore, choosing the correct strain to be used is one of the factors limiting the cultivation of P. ostreatus. Thus, we evaluated the genetic variability (Random Amplified Polymorphic DNA (RAPD)), coloring pileus and yield, four commercial strains of Pleurotus ostreatusgrown in the state of Sao Paulo (POS 98-38, POS 09-100, POS 09-101 and POS 09-102). Molecular characterization showed two different groups, with 69% similarity between them. Within the group that contains the three samples collected from mushroom growers, strains POS 09-100, POS 09-101, and POS 09-102 showed similarities of 93%, which showed pileus light gray color and yield statistically different (Tukey 5%) relative to the second group. The second group was only formed by strain POS 98-38, which showed staining of the pileus dark gray and lower yield in the first group. Therefore, the genetic variability between strains of P. ostreatus analyzed showed genetic differences, morphological and yield. Key words: Random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD), strain, morphology, yield, number of clusters.

Optimization of the cultivation conditions for mushroom production with European wild strains of Agaricus subrufescens and Brazilian cultivars

The almond mushroom Agaricus subrufescens (formerly Agaricus blazei or Agaricus brasiliensis) is cultivated at commercial level in Brazil and some Asian countries on local substrates and casing mixtures. Despite its tropical origin, A. subrufescens might be a seasonal option for mushroom growers in western countries, where some wild strains have been isolated. For this purpose, cultivation conditions were developed starting from the substrate and casing mixture commonly used for commercial production of the button mushroom Agaricus bisporus in France. The commercial compost, based on wheat straw and horse manure, used for A. bisporus and the casing mixture (peat and limestone) supplemented with fine sand proved efficient to grow A. subrufescens. Increasing the depth of the casing layer improved significantly the yield and time to fruiting. Daily variations in temperature did not markedly modify the yield. Significantly higher mushroom biomass was obtained with three wild European strains compared with three Brazilian cultivars. The very productive wild strain CA438-A gave mushrooms of size and dry matter content comparable to those of a cultivar. Commercial production of A. subrufescens can be developed in western countries on the wheat straw-based substrate commonly used for A. bisporus in these regions, by a simple modification of the casing mixture and maintaining the incubation temperature throughout the crop, which is expected to save energy during summer. Good yields were obtained cultivating European strains under optimised parameters.

Consumption of Lentinula edodes modulates human immune function by altering cytokine secretion of PBMC ex vivo

Lentinus edodes (Shiitake) is a medicinal mushroom with a long tradition of use in Asia. The literature suggests that mushrooms modulate immune function, but there have been no controlled studies of Shiitake mushroom consumption on the human immune response. Therefore, we recruited 51 healthy adults, who were randomly allocated to consume either 50g/d or 100g/d of dried, whole Shiitake mushrooms for 28d. Peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) were isolated and cultured for 24hr with PHA‐L. Culture media was harvested and analyzed for cytokines by multiplex technology. There was no significant difference between the two serving sizes, so the data was pooled and analyzed by paired t‐test. After 28d of Shiitake mushroom consumption, secretion levels of IL4 (51.4%, p&lt;0.001), IL10 (33.4%, p&lt;0.001), IL1α (16.6%, p=0.015) and TNFα (16.6%, p=0.009) by PBMC were significantly increased, while IL6 (−41.0%, p&lt;0.001) and MIP1α (−67.4%, p&lt;0.001) levels were significantly reduced, compared to those seen before consumption. Secretion levels of other cytokines, IL1β, IL17, MIP1β and IFNγ, were the same before and after consumption. These results show that supplementing the diet with whole Shiitake mushrooms is immuno‐modulatory, as seen by the altered pattern of cytokine secretion by stimulated PBMC ex vivo. Funded by US Mushroom Council; Australian Mushroom Growers Assn.

Lentinula edodes Consumption: Proliferation, Activation and Modification of Memory and Naive Innate Immune Cell Populations

A human nutrition intervention was conducted to evaluate the effect of dried Lentinula edodes (Shiitake) mushrooms on immunological changes in healthy subjects. 51 subjects were randomized to 1(50g) or 2 (100g) servings/d for 28d. Peripheral blood mononuclear cells were isolated and cultured for 24hr or 6d with PHA‐L, before and after mushroom consumption. Proliferation and activation of gamma delta T (γδTCR+/CD3+), NK (CD56+/CD3−) and NKT (CD56+/CD3+) cells were determined by flow cytometry. In addition, naïve (CD45RA+) and memory (CD45RO+) γδT cell populations were determined. After mushroom consumption, significant increases in proliferation were observed after 24hr for NK and NKT cells and after 6d for all three cell types. An increase in the ability to proliferate ex vivo suggests a more robust response may occur in vivo. Changes in the distribution of CD45RO+ and CD45RA+ on γδ TCR+ cells were observed suggesting mushroom consumption influences maturation of γδ‐T cells in vivo. Expression of CD69 on γδ T cells and CD314 on NK and NKT cells was significantly increased during 24hr of culture, after 28d of mushroom consumption. Increased ability to express these activation markers suggests the cells may be primed. Overall, changes observed in these innate immune cells suggest positive benefits of regular Shiitake mushroom consumption. Support from US Mushroom Council &amp; Australian Mushroom Growers Assn.

Toxicity of three insecticides and tobacco extract against the fungus gnat, Lycoriella auripila and the economic injury level of the gnat on button mushroom

Lycoriella auripila (Winnertz) (Diptera: Sciaridae) is one of the most frequently seen pests of cultivated mushrooms, Agaricus bisporus (Lange) Imbach. The effects of different concentrations of diazinon, imidacloprid and deltamethrin, and tobacco extract were tested against L.auripila on varieties 737 and A15 of button mushroom. Also, economic injury level (EIL) of fungus gnat was evaluated on variety 737. Different varieties of button mushroom were cultured and weight of harvested mushrooms was recorded to provide an estimate of yield loss. A linear regression analysis was used to determine the relationship between pest density and mushroom yield. Imidacloprid was the most effective insecticide against L.auripila on both varieties and caused 100 % control at the highest tested concentration. The lowest concentration of diazinon (500 ppm a.i.) increased pest emergence on 737 and A15. This is possibly due to the hormoligosis. Deltamethrin and tobacco extract were ineffective against fungus gnat between both varieties. High levels of adults of L.auripila were associated with significant reduction in mushroom yield. EIL were calculated according to the number of L. auripila required to cause the critical yield loss from the predictive model and by control costs, mushroom price, and the reduction of injury due to spraying by imidacloprid and diazinon. The lowest values of EIL were related to imidacloprid compared with diazinon. This is due to the different efficiency of these two insecticides, for it causes mortality in population of L. auripila. Based on this research, for the first time clear EILs are introduced to the button mushroom growers for treatment of L. auripila.

Safety assessment of the post-harvest treatment of button mushrooms (Agaricus bisporus) using ultraviolet light

Wild mushrooms are an excellent source of vitamin D. The presence of vitamin D in mushrooms is attributed to sunlight exposure, which catalyzes the conversion of fungal ergosterol to vitamin D2 via a series of photochemical/thermal reactions. Mushroom growers now incorporate UV light treatments during processing to produce mushrooms with levels of vitamin D that compare to those in wild mushrooms. Presented herein is a comprehensive review of information relevant to the safety of introducing vitamin D mushrooms, produced using UV light technologies, to the food supply. Historical reference to the use of UV light for production of vitamin D is discussed, and studies evaluating the nutritional value and safety of vitamin D mushrooms are reviewed. Traditional safety evaluation practices for food additives are not applicable to whole foods; therefore, the application of substantial equivalence and history-of-safe-use is presented. It was demonstrated that vitamin D in mushrooms, produced using UV light technologies, are equivalent to vitamin D in mushrooms exposed to sunlight, and that UV light has a long-history of safe use for production of vitamin D in food. Vitamin D mushrooms produced using UV light technologies were therefore considered safe and suitable for introduction to the marketplace.