Museum Of Antiquities Research Articles

A Tombstone Inscription from al-Maʿlā Cemetery of a Woman Named Fāṭima bint ʿAbd Allāh ibn ʿAbd al-Malik al-Khurayjī

Abstract This study focuses on a tombstone inscription of the famous al-Maʿlā Cemetery in Makkah al-Mukarramah. The inscription is preserved with a group of memorial stones in the Museum of Antiquities and Heritage in Makkah. It dates to the historical period extending from the 1st to the 5th centuries ah/7th to 11th centuries ce. The inscription was selected for the study because it contains formulas of supplication, some of which are very rare. In addition, it bears the name of a woman whose lineage bears several readings. The study suggests the reading of al-Khurayji, to which thousands are attributed in a family spread over different regions of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. The inscription is devoid of any decoration or softness in its Kufic script. This qualifies it as one of the Kufic script models that is to be emulated, especially those attributed to Makkah and the Hijaz in general.

Beginnings of Polish archaeological museums in the 19th century

The first Polish archaeological museums or those with archaeological departments – institutions dealing withgathering collections, conducting research, organizing exhibitions and publishing works devoted to archaeology, as it was understood at that time – began to be established in the mid-19th century. They were created by scientific societies or on the initiative of private individuals. They were: the Museum of Antiquities of the Kraków Scientific Society, the Museum of Antiquities in Vilnius, the Museum of Polish and Slavic Antiquities in the Grand Duchy of Poznań, the Museum of the Toruń Scientific Society, the Museum of the Lubomirski Princes in Lviv and the Dzieduszycki Natural History Museum in Lviv. The article discusses the beginnings of Polish archaeological museums, their creation, the scope and shape of the collections, methods of obtaining artefacts, the headquarters and the further fate of these institutions.

Crocodile Rock! A Bioarchaeological Study of Ancient Egyptian Reptile Remains from the National Museum of Lithuania

Remnants of what was believed to be a single baby crocodile, originating from ancient Egypt and curated in the National Museum of Lithuania, have been recently assessed using noninvasive and nondestructive techniques. These had been donated in 1862 to the then Museum of Antiquities by the prominent Polish-Lithuanian collector Count Michał Tyszkiewicz. After careful investigation of the three mummified reptile fragments available, the authors were able to identify at least two individuals based on morpho-anatomical characteristics. This indicates that the two small crocodiles originally described in historic records are still present within the collection and that none of these items was lost during the different lootings perpetrated throughout the museum’s history. Information regarding the post-mortem treatment of these animals was also obtained. This is the first scientific study of animal mummies in the Baltic States, and it should be followed by proper conservation and display of these findings.

On some Features of Funerary Assemblage of the Egyptian Priestess Nesmut

The subject of this paper is the analysis of funerary assemblage of Nesmut, the Egyptian priestess of the 21st Dynasty (her titles are “Mistress of the House, Chantress of Amun, king of the gods”). The burial of Nesmut was discovered in 1891 in the so-called “Second Cache” at Deir al-Bahri, also known as Bāb el-Gusūs (set no. A.48). Inventory that was discovered on the mummy: leather mummy braces, three “napkins”, linen gloves, shale heart scarab, and wax images of the sons of Horus. Inventory that was found near or inside of the coffin: two shabti-boxes, shabtis. Nesmut’s mummy cover is located in the Museum of Antiquities in Cairo (Cairo CG 6007). Her coffin is currently stored in the Odesa Archaeological Museum (OAM) of the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine (inv. no. 71695). It was part of the so-called Lot VI presented to Russian Empire by Egyptian government in 1893. In 1895, the coffin of Nesmut was sent from Odesa to the Archaeological Museum of St. Volodymyr Kyiv University. In 1959 the coffin of Nesmut was among other objects that were transferred from the State Republican Historical Museum in Kyiv to the OAM. The lid of the coffin with inv. no. OAM 71695 differs in design style from the trunk and has an earlier dating. Structurally, the lid has retained traces of technological processing and fitting the trunk of the later coffin of its namesake. Accordingly, there were two Nesmuts, whose funerary objects were discovered in Bāb el-Gusūs. The burial of Nesmut (II) corresponds to the set no. A.48 by Daressy and it is linked with the coffin trunk no. OAM 71695. Separate objects from Nesmut’s (I) grave goods were adapted for later burials: the lid of her inner coffin was used for the Odesa coffin of Nesmut (II), and the lid of the outer coffin might have been adapted for an anonymous burial from Bāb el-Gusūs set no. A.54 (Swiss lot IX, Neuchâtel, Musée d’Ethnographie, inv. no. Eg. 184) on which the name “Nesmut” preserved in one segment of the lid. The burial of Nesmut was also equipped with two different types of shabtis. It is possible that like the lid of the coffin, part of the shabtis was “usurped” by Nesmut (II) and previously belonged to the burial of her namesake and probably relative, Nesmut (I). It is quite probable, that they were reused and adopted for the burial of new owner together with the shabti-box, since the two of them were found in the set no. A.48. This may prove that during the 21st Dynasty, not only large objects, but also small items of grave goods could be reused.

Наследие архимандрита Антонина (Капустина): Музей древностей в Иерусалиме

The article is devoted to the Museum of Antiquities of Archimandrite Antonin (Kapustin), head of the Russian Orthodox Mission in Jerusalem as an important part of his legacy. Between the middle of the 19th century and 1894, Archimandrite Antonin assembled extremely interesting collections of antiquities as a result of purposeful collection of artifacts purchased from antiquaries, received as gifts, found during archaeological excavations and construction of churches and pilgrimage hostels on the lands acquired by the Russian Mission. After Antonin's death, the anxiety of the scientific community for the fate of the Museum did not allow the Synod, which had cooled to his legacy after the registration of land ownership, to forget about the Museum of Antiquities. In the 20th century, the fate of the Museum was very complicated, but even today, although in a very reduced form, this ‘living encyclopedia of civilizations’ occupies an substantial place in Antonin's whole legacy.

Pirmieji posukiliminiai metai Lietuvos istoriografijoje: kaip archeologus keitė slavistai ir folkloristai. Piotro Bezsonovo atvejis (1865–1866 m.)

The events of 1863–1864 were a turning point in the intellectual life of Vilnius (Rus. Vil’na) and of all Lithuanian and Belarussian gubernias of the then Russian Empire, which were already commonly known as the North-Western krai, i.e. province. The consequences of the defeated uprising – the reorganisation of the Vilnius Museum of Antiquities, the closure of the Vilnius Temporary Archaeological Commission, and the establishment of the Vilnius Public Library – became a recognised fact. Vilnius Central Archives, founded in 1852 and significantly enriched by the archives of the estates confiscated after the uprising and of the closed Catholic monasteries, also played a significant role in the imperial policy, as did the archive of the books of the early acts of the gubernias of Vilnius, Kaunas (Rus. Kovno), Gardinas (Rus. Grodno) and Minsk, and the Vilnius Commission for the studies and publication of the books of the early acts. Since all these institutions operated in the premises of the closed Vilnius University, nowadays their history is justifiably or maybe unjustifiably (as the content of this article would suggest) treated as an integral part of the history of the alma mater. The aim of the newly created Russian centre of science and culture was to annihilate the historical memory of the ‘Polish’ intellectual life that had once been bustling within these walls. All four institutions – or rather all three, since after the reorganisation of the Vilnius Museum of Antiquities it became a division of the Vilnius Public Library – attracted scholars’ attention. Key personalities who used to work in these institutions were also mentioned and sometimes introduced in greater detail.

Collecting antiquities in wartime

Abstract During the First World War (1914–1918), many service personnel collected souvenirs from the countries in which they served, but the collection of antiquities by service personnel remains a neglected area of research. Between 2019 and 2021, the R. D. Milns Antiquities Museum at the University of Queensland and the Queensland Museum collaborated in a research partnership to learn more about the antiquities collecting activities of First World War personnel from Queensland, Australia. In addition to reporting on the preliminary results of that pilot study, this paper also begins to address the question of why antiquities appealed to service personnel. Most artefacts in this study are from the private collections donated to the Queensland Museum and from three privately owned collections. Artefacts are mostly small ‘curios’ such as scarabs, figurines, coins and fragments of monuments collected in various theatres of the war.

Comparison of low-cost techniques for digital cultural heritage preservation of an original Egyptian temple

Abstract. The research covers a method to map archaeological objects (cultural heritage) in 3D in an accurate, detailed way with low-cost equipment. This paper deals with a preliminary step, testing the method on an ancient Egyptian object, the temple of Taffeh (Raven, 1996) in the Rijksmuseum van Oudheden (National Museum of Antiquities) in Leiden, the Netherlands. Mapping the temple is a preparation step for accurately and detailed mapping and geo-referencing an ancient Egyptian subterranean tomb. The research was to compare two different techniques on reliability and precision, together describing the accuracy. The proposed techniques in the method are photogrammetry with a full-frame digital mirrorless camera and using an iPhone with LiDAR capability. For this first step, the mapping of the temple, a third technique was added: a more advanced mobile laser scanner (a ZEB Horizon), not being low-cost but interesting for comparison and possibly validation. Of all three techniques the point density was measured to give a first indication of the level of detail. The research shows the method to be promising for use in Egypt. The photogrammetry model was the most accurate, presenting sub-centimetre details of the object while the iPhone LiDAR model was less accurate and lower in point density but faster.

GLASS OF THE KAMIANETS-PODILSKYI REGION: SOURCE BASIS AND RESEARCH PROSPECTS

The existing source base and research prospects of the development of art glass in the territory of the Kamianets-Podilskyi region are examined in this article. The work of V. Gagenmeister “Huta glass of Podillya” (1931), as a source for the contemporary art criticism studies of art glass of the Kamianets-Podilskyi region and a modern base for the prospects of its further research, is characterized. The work of V. Gagenmeister “Huta glass of Podilya”, as an art history source which allows a comparative analysis of the first collection and the description of the Kamianets-Podilskyi region glass with the modern collections available from the foundations, is studied and systematically analysed. In the work of V. Gagenmeister “Huta glass of Podillya”, unique in its identity, the first attempt to analyse and systematize the glassware available at foundations of the Kamianets-Podilskyi Museum of Antiquities at that time was performed. It can be argued that at that time this work was the only one of its kind art attempt to appeal to the study of the glass products from the Kamianets- Podilskyi region, and further fundamental for scientists who addressed the topic of study of Ukrainian glass and glass of the Kamianets-Podilskyi region particularly. Relevant and important remains the work of an outstanding teacher and scientist for contemporary art historians, local historians and teachers of disciplines from the cycle of decorative and applied arts. The object of the article is to consider the source base and research prospects of the development of art glass in the territory of the Kamianets-Podilskyi region. An attempt to analyse the work of V. Gagenmeister “Huta glass of Podillya” (1931), as a source for the contemporary art criticism studies of art glass of the Kamianets-Podilskyi region and a modern base for the prospects of its further research, was made. The study and system analysis of the work of V. Gagenmeister “Huta glass of Podillya”, as an art history source which allows a comparative analysis of the first collection and the description of the Kamianets-Podilskyi region glass with the modern collections available from the foundations, was done. The research methodology includes the study and system analysis of the work of V. Gagenmeister “Huta glass of Podillya” as an art history source, which allows a comparative analysis of the first collection and the description of the Kamianets-Podilskyi region glass with the modern collections available from the foundations. The scientific novelty of the research lies in the fact that for the first time the description of the glass collection available at the Kamianets-Podilskyi Museum and its foundations is introduced into a scientific circulation. Its modern typology and systematization according to the morphological features with a comparative analysis of the work of V. Gagenmeister “Huta glass of Podillya” is presented. The artistic and stylistic features of glass as a research subject are considered. The work of V. Gagenmeister “Huta glass of Podillya” (1931) remains unique and distinctive, fundamental and informative when it comes to the study of decorative and applied arts in our region. V. Gagenmeister made the first attempt to analyse and systematize the glassware available at foundations of the Kamianets-Podilskyi Museum of Antiquities at his time.

Collecting “Remembrances of these Isles”: Tracing the Post-1880 History of a Taíno Cotton Cemí in the Dominican Republic and Italy

AbstractThis article charts the collection history of the only surviving precolumbian cotton reliquary (cemí) from the Dominican Republic, establishing its provenance from the mid-nineteenth century through a previously unpublished manuscript written by the collector, Rodolfo Domingo Cambiaso Sosa, and using archival documents in Italy. The cemí, found in a cave in the southwest of the country near the town of Petitrou (Enriquillo), was purchased in 1882 by Admiral Giuseppe Giovanni Battista Cambiaso, one of the founders of the Dominican Navy. It emerged in international publications commemorating the quadricentennial of the Spanish–Indigenous encounter in 1892 and shortly thereafter was sent to Genoa, Italy. It entered the collections of Turin's Royal Museum of Antiquities in 1928 before being passed to the newly established Museum of Anthropology and Ethnography. It was rediscovered by Dominican scholars in the 1970s and has inspired numerous investigations since, including renewed collaborative links between the Dominican Republic and Italy.

The Effectiveness and Validity of Biomagz Based on the Museum Purbakala Sangiran in Evolutionary Learning in Senior High Schools

This study aims to analyze the validity and analyze the effectiveness of Biomagz as a supplement to teaching materials on the evolutionary material of students in class XII of high school. Although the existence of teaching material sources in schools is complete, based on the explanations from students, teaching materials with an attractive appearance will motivate students to study harder. The development of biomagz is compiled based on observations made at the Museum Purbakala Sangiran which has the potential to be a source of learning, especially on evolutionary material. The development of biomagz based on the Sangiran Museum of Antiquities refers to basic competency standards in accordance with the 2013 curriculum, using Indonesian and designed as attractive as possible. The research was carried out with the aim of analyzing the characteristics of biomagz development, analyzing the validity and analyzing the effectiveness of biomagz as a supplement to teaching materials on the evolutionary material of class XII high school students. This research included R&D research. As many as 15 respondents of class XII MIPA 2 at SMA Negeri 2 Pekalongan were selected by random sampling in filling out the biomagz readability questionnaire. The effectiveness test stage was carried out at SMA Negeri 4 Pekalongan class XII MIPA 3 which amounted to 35 students with learning outcomes tests. The data collection method uses readability test questionnaires, tests and user response questionnaires. The data obtained based on the calendar and user response questionnaire can be analyzed with percentage descriptive techniques. The learning outcomes analyzed can then be compared with the expected percentage of classical completion. The results of the study showed that based on the results of the development of biomagz based on the Museum Purbakala Sangiran, it has characteristics including having an attractive appearance with a colored background, and presented with a variety of images obtained from the Sangiran Antiquities Museum. Biomagz was declared valid and had very decent criteria with media validation results of 93.6% and material validation of 84%. In addition, biomagz was also stated to be very good in the readability test and received a positive response from students and teachers on the results of the user's response to use. The percentage of student responses is 91% and the percentage of teacher responses the user's response to use. The percentage of student responses is 91% and the percentage of teacher responses is 95%. In addition, biomagz was declared effective because ≥85% of students had test scores above the standard score of KKM completion. The conclusion of the research is the characteristics of the development of biomagz as a supplement to student teaching materials based on the Sangiran Antiquities Museum which is interesting and can be used as a support for learning activities in the research process, biomagz based on the Sangiran Antiquities Museum is declared feasible as a supplement to evolutionary teaching materials, and biomagz is declared effective because ≥85% of students have test scores above the value of the drinking completion criteria or KKM. The supporting suggestion of this research is that the development of biomagz can be presented through a page that can be accessed by students anytime and anywhere.

Digging Up Jericho: Past, Present and Future

Digging Up Jericho: Past, Present and Future

Works of Albert Żamett in the Collection of the Lithuanian Academy of Sciences

The article analyses the works of Albert Żamett (Zameytt, 1821–1876), an artist from Vilnius, stored in the collections of the Lithuanian Academy of Sciences and the Wroblewski Library of the Lithuanian Academy of Sciences. Most of these works are from the Wroblewski collections. The diverse collection also includes such unique items as an album of studio drawings, a watercolour depicting the ruins of Trakai Castle, and a stage design project. These and other objects in the collection reflect different stages of Żamett’s creative activities and are very significant for the research on this artist’s legacy but have remained on the margins of scientific research up until now. In the article, the works of the Wroblewski collection are discussed in the broader context of Żamett’s work; some objects are published and introduced to scientific circulation for the first time. The publication discusses the artist’s relations with Jan Kazimierz Wilczyński, the publisher of Album de Vilna (The Album of Vilnius) and with patrons Benedict, Michał, and Eustachy Tyszkiewicz. The dates of some works are being revised (the painting Interior of the Palace in Gorodok – 1860, the drawing for the lithograph The Archaeology Hall of the Vilnius Museum of Antiquities – 1863). New data on various aspects of the artist’s creative activity in Vilnius are also presented. For example, it has not been noticed until now that Żamett used Sweykowski’s photography for the image of Eustachy Tyszkiewicz in the interior of the Archaeology Hall of the Vilnius Museum of Antiquities. It was also not known that Żamett led the reconstruction of the St Wladislaus Chapel in 1862–1863, during which the altar with the sculpture of the saint by Henryk Dmochowski, which has survived to this day, was installed. Unexpected information was also found in the press about the mural depicting Békés Hill, which Żamett painted in 1862 in Spohr’s confectionery on Vokiečių Street. With regard to the 1847 watercolour depicting the ruins of Trakai Castle, it was discovered that Żamett used the motif of Trakai several times and had painted several landscape versions of this theme using romantic lighting effects in some of them. The watercolour in the Lithuanian Academy of Sciences is probably the earliest and the only image of the ruins of Trakai Castle by Albert Żamett that has survived in Lithuania.

АРХИВЫ, МУЗЕИ, БИБЛИОТЕКИ КАК СОКРОВИЩНИЦА ДОКУМЕНТАЛЬНОЙ ПАМЯТИ БЕЛОРУССКОГО НАРОДА

The article considers the process of accumulation, recording, keeping and use of the documentary monuments created on the Belarusian land, from ancient times to the present. It is noted that the regulatory and legal framework that existed in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania in the form of the “archival articles” of statutes, the Sejm resolutions and constitutions contributed to the preservation of documents, primarily of a legal nature. The magnates and gentry of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania took care of their family archives, inviting specialists who were experts in archives to organize them. With the inclusion of the Belarusian lands into the Russian Empire, the local administration was initially indifferent to the preservation of the archives of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, using them only as a means to fight political and ideological opponents. That was particularly evident in the case of the Vilna Museum of Antiquities with the attached Archaeological Commission – the museum suffered detriment as the administration considered its activities to be “polonophile”. One of the reasons for the closure of the museum and the commission in 1864 was the publication of the collections of documents that did not fit into the official historiographical paradigm. On the basis of the museum, the Vilna Public Library, loyal to the administration, was created with the Manuscripts Department, which began to be completed with the documents and materials found both on the territory of the Lithuanian and mainly Belarusian provinces, and it caused an outflow of documentary monuments from the places of their origin. The Vitebsk Scientific Archival Commission, founded in 1909, played a positive role in the collection and preservation of the documentary monuments in the region; the Commission contributed to the formation of the archives, museum and the library, which, after 1917, acquired the status of the institutions of a provincial level. With the creation in 1922 of the archival service of the republic, the formation of a network of state archives, libraries and museums, the issue of distributing archival documents and materials between them acquires particular urgency. It was discussed at the Second Meeting of Archival Workers of Belarus in December 1927, and also at the meeting of the representatives of archival, museum and library institutions in December 1929. Belarusian archivists D.I. Dovgiallo, M.V. Meleshko and others took part in the discussions on the interaction of archives, museums and libraries in collecting and keeping the archival materials. Currently, the republican museums and libraries keep about 10% of the National Archival Funds of Belarus. On April 18, 2022, the Law of the Republic of Belarus “On the Amendments to the Law ‘On Archives and Records Management in the Republic of Belarus’” was adopted, according to which the right to permanently keep the documents of the state part of the National Archival Funds of the Republic of Belarus was only granted to the state archives, while previously, along with archives, museums and libraries had the right to keep such documents. In the context of the “digital revolution” taking place in the world, the issue of interaction between archival, museum and library institutions in the preservation and use of documents and materials is of particular relevance

Domitian: An Innovative Emperor?

The exhibition at the National Museum of Antiquities at Leiden God on Earth: Emperor Domitian (December 2021–May 2022) presented an overview of Domitian’s life in objects to demonstrate the significance and impact of his 15-year reign. The show focused on how he legitimized and shaped his rule, and it challenged the viewer to rethink the assessment of Domitian in ancient sources and his branding as one of the “bad” emperors. The Flavian dynasty, by forging a connection to Augustus, the most popular ruler before them, “anchored innovation” by linking new ideas to familiar ideas already established. The great achievement of the exhibition lay in the quality and scope of the 275 objects from more than 20 museums; the Flavian era emerged as equally artistically rich as that of the Julio-Claudians. Although the exhibition explicitly did not aim to recast Domitian as a “good” ruler but rather invited the viewer to consider all aspects of his image and reputation, at the same time it seemed to rehabilitate Domitian, presenting him as an important emperor in his own right and in a more positive light.

UN VÍNCULO DURADERO: SOBRE UN RITUAL DE MUERTE TRANSFERIDA EN LA ANTIGUA CINÓPOLIS

This paper seeks to analyse two groups of reddish wax magic figurines discovered in the cemetery of the ancient city of Cynopolis and preserved at the Antiquities Museum of the Bibliotheca Alexandrina, with the aim of offering a critical and updated exegesis of these exceptional magical artefacts from Roman Egypt. By analysing features including material, colour, morphology and iconography, and by examining the effigies alongside parallel rituals, I argue that this ensemble should be best understood as a ‘transferred death ritual’, whose aim was to ensure an effective death and the sending of the deceased to the underworld.

Joseph Anderson (1832–1916) and the Scottish historical collection in the Antiquities Museum, 1869 to 1892

Joseph Anderson (1832–1916) was an influential figure within the history of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland and Scottish archaeology during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. But while Anderson is best known for his contribution to the development of Scottish prehistoric and early medieval archaeology, there has been less focus on his role in expanding and studying the Society’s Scottish historical collection. This article considers the ways in which Scottish historical material culture was displayed in the Antiquities Museum and investigated by Anderson from 1869 until 1892, with arrangements in Scotland compared to other national museums in the British Isles and Europe. The Society’s archives and Anderson’s publications have been critically examined within this study to demonstrate that Anderson’s archaeological background influenced his approach to studying historic objects and contributed to his vision of a unified Scottish cultural history contextualised through international comparisons. This article also seeks to show how Anderson was in a privileged position as keeper of the museum for 43 years, allowing him to systematise and apply ideas and methodologies to the Scottish historical collection that had been developing within the Society both prior to and during his keepership.

THE TITLES, FUNCTIONS AND FORMULAS THAT WERE USED IN ALGERIA DURING THE OTTOMAN PERIOD

The purpose of this article is to define the titles, functions and formulas that were used in Algeria during the Ottoman period, based on the texts written on the funeral steles, these represent a register gathering an indefinite number of titles of sovereigns, administrators, military, merchants, religious, whose historical sources do not mention them, so we will be able to complete the register of the names of all persons who have played an important role in the administration of the Algerian state. The study of the titles, functions and religious formulas inscribed on the funeral steles allows us to give a true image of the Algerian state during the Ottoman period and its legal, military, religious and civil governmental apparatus. Almost all of these funeral steles are preserved in Algerian museums such as: the National Public Museum of Antiquities of Algiers and the National Public Museum of Tlemcen, however, some of them are kept in private cemeteries in the cities of Algiers and Constantine.

THE TITLES AND EPITHETS RECEIVED BY THE QARAMANIDS ACCORDING TO THE INSCRIPTIONS

In Turkey, there are a few carved inscriptions (tombstones, building and commemorative inscriptions) belonging to the Qaramanids in the provinces of Antalya, Larende, Ermenak, Konya, Laranda, Niğde, and Aksaray. Most of these inscriptions were published between 1911 and 1912 by the Turkish scholar Halil Edhem Eldem (1861-1938), who was the director of the Museum of Antiquities in Istanbul in 1910. In addition to them, the late Turkish historian Mükrimin Halil Yinanç (1900-1961), from Istanbul University, recorded copies of the inscriptions belonging to the Anatolian Seljuks and Anatolian Principalities, including that of the Qaramanids into the daftars (notebooks). These notebooks, which have not been published yet, are protected by the family of the deceased Professor Refet Yinanç (1939-2019). Most of the inscriptions, I used in this article, are basically based on these two sources.
 The Qaramanids, a Turkish-Islamic State and politically opposed to the Ottomans, used Turkish, Arabic and Persian words as titles and epithets. They inherited most of these titles and epithets from the Anatolian Seljuks. While emphasizing the Central Asian Turkish roots with the Turkish words they used, they also emphasized that they supported Islam and the caliphate with Arabic words. With these words, they openly stated that they were the helpers of Islam and Muslims and that they were engaged in jihad. In addition to making conquests in the name of Islam, they also declared that they were fighting against polytheism and atheism. They always expressed their support for the caliph. Karamanoğlu Ibrahim Bey II declared himself as a caliph. They claimed that they were the heirs of the Iranian shahs with Persian words. They stated that they attach importance to justice and bestowal. They clearly wrote in the inscriptions that they were protecting the believers but were the enemies of the unbelievers.

Empires of Antiquities: Modernity and Discovery of the Ancient Near East, 1914–1950

Empires of Antiquities: Modernity and Discovery of the Ancient Near East, 1914–1950