Digging Up Jericho: Past, Present and Future

Abstract

In 1957, Kathleen M. Kenyon published the volume Digging Up Jericho. This small-format book aimed to present to a popular readership the results achieved in Jericho, at the site of Tell es-Sultan, by the British expedition directed by Kenyon. The volume illustrates the most remarkable discoveries of the excavations. Some of these discoveries, as well as the methods that Kenyon employed to obtain them, were of epoch-making importance. They expanded and transformed the under- standing of the archaeology and history of the region: the impressive Neolithic settlement with its tower and town wall; the plethora of data on the interlude between the Early and Middle Bronze Age civilizations; the huge necropolis around the site, hundreds of tombs of which were excavated; up to the cutting-edge review of the dat- ing and interpretation of the collapsed city walls—until then commonly attributed to the conquest of Joshua. Kenyon’s excavations ended in 1958. It was to take years for all the final report volumes to see the light of pub- lication (Kenyon 1960, 1965, 1981; Kenyon and Holland 1982, 1983) and to present the extensive excavation results. However, both because of the extent of the data and the dense character of the final reports, the results of Kenyon’s work at Tell es-Sultan still need to be thor- oughly evaluated.The mound itself is a living monument that epito- mizes the history of Near Eastern archaeology. From the pioneering explorations in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries (C. Warren; the survey by C. Conder, C. F. Tyrwhitt-Drake, and H. Kitchener; F. J. Bliss; E. Sellin and C. Watzinger), through the golden age of biblical archaeology (J. Garstang), up to the introduction of the stratigraphic excavation method (K. M. Kenyon), and the following debate on the agenda and procedures of archae- ological investigation, Jericho has always been at the center of archaeological exploration in the Near East and played the role of laboratory for Near Eastern archeology.As a result of the changed political situation, however, since 1967 investigations in the Jericho area came to a halt (or only continued along very specific lines: e.g., the exploration by a Hebrew University expedition of the Hasmonean and Herodian Palaces at Tulul Abu el-‘Alayiq, between 1973–1987, with additional short excavation sea- sons in 1998–2000; see Netzer 1993, 2001, 2008, 2018).The interest in the Jericho Plain as a whole, and in the site of Tell es-Sultan in particular, only reemerged in the 1990s following the 1993 Palestinian-Israeli Agreement and the reestablishment of the Palestinian Department of Antiquities and Cultural Heritage in 1994. From then on, new perspectives, changed goals, and above all an interest in cultural heritage management, have guided the work. In 1997, a new pilot project for archaeologi- cal investigations and restorations was started at Tell es-Sultan, and two international workshops on the pres- ervation, management, and enhancement of the cul- tural heritage of the Jericho Oasis were later organized in the modern city of Ariḥa: “Tell es-Sultan/Jericho in the Context of the Jordan Valley: Site Management, Conservation and Sustainable Development” (February 7–11, 2005; see Nigro and Taha 2006); and “Conservation and Enhancement of Cultural Heritage: A Cooperation Journey through the Palestinian Territories and Jordan” (March 26–27, 2008). Concurrently, multiple fieldwork projects of excavation, restoration, and conservation were launched in the Jericho Oasis (see below).On June 29–30, 2015, twenty years after the resump- tion of work in the Jericho area, a new conference on the archaeology of Tell es-Sultan/Jericho and its landscape was held in London, at the UCL Institute of Archaeology. The conference embraced three main the- matic lines: up-to-date researches on old excavations; recent fieldwork; and cultural heritage management. The volume Digging Up Jericho: Past, Present and Future col- lects the proceedings of this conference, evocatively reus- ing the same title as Kenyon’s volume. The volume aims to offer a holistic view on past and current research on Tell es-Sultan and the Jericho area and the public value of this archeological heritage. It includes 19 contributions by international scholars who deal with different topics: fieldwork results and material culture studies, history of archaeology, public archaeology, and cultural heritage management. Tell es-Sultan, the site of biblical Jericho, represents a basic starting point; however, the volume seeks to report on the archaeology and cultural heritage of the whole Jericho Oasis. Unfortunately, not all peri- ods and archaeological resources in the area are equally addressed.The volume opens with a preface in which co-editor Bill Finlayson summarizes and critically presents the content of the 19 essays. These essays are then organized in three sections. The first part (“Past”) is devoted to past fieldwork in Jericho, with a focus on Kenyon’s exca- vations at Tell es-Sultan. The second part (“Present”) is focused on current fieldwork. The third part (“Future”) deals with the preservation and public presentation of archaeological heritage. Overall, the three sections illus- trate the complexity of the site of Tell es-Sultan, whose past and current investigations have involved various aspects beyond archaeological research. But they also highlight the richness and potential of the cultural heri- tage in the Jericho area, whose long-standing history from the Epipaleolithic to the present (Taha and Qleibo 2010) requires a constant commitment to preservation, rehabilitation, and public presentation.The first part of the volume copes with the past explo- rations in the Jericho area, including their agenda, meth- ods, and scope. It clearly demonstrates that a deeper understanding of old data, as well as past methodologies and practices, can contribute to ongoing debates. The opening chapter by Felicity Cobbing shows the value of archival materials, which continue to be an active source of information today. Cobbing relies on the archives held in the Palestine Exploration Fund (PEF) and focuses on the first phase of explorations in Jericho conducted by the PEF since the late nineteenth century. These early investigations (by Warren; Conder, Tyrwhitt-Drake, and Kitchener; and Bliss) contributed to knowledge of the Jericho region (from Tell es-Sultan itself to the wider landscape) and to innovation in Near Eastern archaeol- ogy (e.g., the work by Warren helped determine the arti- ficial nature of ancient tells). The text ends by comparing the earliest archives with the extensive and detailed archive from J. Garstang’s 1930s excavations at Tell es-Sultan, also available at the PEF.The Jericho excavations have involved considerable public outreach. Rachael Sparks deals with the public profile of the archaeological research. She illustrates how Jericho was presented to a general audience throughout the history of its explorations, as the research themes and research agenda changed over time. She examines the role archaeologists, journalists, and television pro- ducers played in shaping the public perception of the site through different media. Her contribution also offers some insights into the practical and financial aspects of the organization of past excavations.Stuart Laidlaw† joined the Institute of Archaeology in London as the assistant of Peter Dorrell, the third professional photographer who worked in Jericho/Tell es-Sultan under Kenyon. Laidlaw is therefore able to discuss, from a privileged position, the work of profes- sional photographers during Kenyon’s excavations and their photographic equipment; the role of photography in the excavation process and presentation to the public; as well as the way the photographic material was stored at the Institute and used afterwards. As in Cobbing’s con- tribution, the importance of this archival material for the study of Jericho, and the history of archaeology, is again revealed.John Carswell offers further insights into the tech- nical aspects of Kenyon’s excavations in Jericho/Tell es-Sultan. He describes his experience as a technical draftsman in Kenyon’s expedition. The article offers a personal, fascinating, even touching, point of view on the excavations and, like Stuart Laidlaw’s paper, trans- ports us right into the world of mid-twentieth-century archaeology.Beverley Butler’s contribution to the volume is more theoretical and explores a different topic: Jericho’s hold on the imagination and emotions, and its effects on both the wider audience and the archaeological excava- tion. Based on the popular account of the dig provided by Margaret Wheeler, the excavation is portrayed as a rou- tine of ritual performances and ritual behaviors deriving from archaeological practice. Butler widens the perspec- tive from the dig and the archaeologists to the Jerichoan site-workers, the refugees, and the tombs within their camp, while touching on many themes covered in the volume: the professional and public identity of archaeol- ogy and archaeologists, the role of media in archaeology, and the relationship between archaeology and the Bible.Tell es-Sultan represents a milestone in the history of modern archaeology, since here K. M. Kenyon intro- duced and used, for the first time in a systemic way in the region, the stratigraphic method of archaeological excavation. Bart Wagemakers discusses developments in south Levantine archaeology by considering Kenyon’s excavations in Jericho and subsequent fieldwork in the region, namely H. J. Franken’s excavations at Tell Deir ‘Allā. Franken—like other Near Eastern archaeologists— was trained by Kenyon at Tell es-Sultan. Building on this experience, he later developed innovative approaches to Near Eastern archaeology, both in relation to the method and the relationship between biblical studies and archaeology.The following articles of the first section reassess data from past excavations, in light of both up-to-date methodological approaches and our increased knowledge of the region. Alexandra Fletcher highlights the signifi- cance of Jericho/Tell es-Sultan in Neolithic archaeology by examining the PPNB Jericho skull kept in the British Museum. Plastered skulls represent one of the most far-reaching discoveries for understanding the Neolithic period and its symbolic, ritual, and social complexity. Fletcher returns to the issue through a recent reexami- nation of the British Museum skull, achieved by apply- ing micro-CT scanning. Hopefully similar analyses will be extended to other specimens to assess and expand the proposed conclusions about the presence of artificial and deliberate cranial modifications, and their role in select- ing skulls for special postmortem treatments.Kay Prag copes with the development of archaeo- logical knowledge by revising one of Kenyon’s leading theories: the “Amorite question.” The article continues the author’s long-term investigation into the Levantine Intermediate Bronze Age / EB IV: a topic that has been the subject of much discussion in recent years. Prag sum- marizes and updates the discussion over the Amorite question: she underlines the strengths and weaknesses of some recent approaches and proposals (however, the latest works by A. A. Burke should also be mentioned; e.g., Burke 2014, 2017) while offering new insights into the topic.The essay by Daria Montanari falls within the scope of the research carried out by the recent Italian-Palestinian expedition to Tell es-Sultan. She discusses Bronze Age metal weapons. The typological description and context analysis are accurate and provide information on the function and social role of weapons. The study would have benefited from more in-depth technological investigation: the latter could offer further insights into understanding the socioeconomic context of production and consump- tion, as well as in clarifying the different regional tech- nical and cultural traditions in weaponry that the essay refers to.Christine Erkelens and Lucas Petit’s contribution describes the assemblage of one tomb in the Jericho necropolis: Tomb P23, stored in the Dutch National Museum of Antiquities. As in Fletcher’s study, finds from past excavations (namely, the skeletal remains) under- went renewed, up-to-date investigations, which have yielded new useful information.Moving to another key site of the Jericho Oasis, Khirbet el-Mafjar/Qasr Hisham, Ignacio Arce reconsid- ers previous investigations and compares old data with current research context. His stratigraphic and technical study of the architecture, together with some geophysical work, has revealed a more complex history of the building activities at the site. Furthermore, the landscape analysis has outlined the relation of the Mafjar complex with the surrounding countryside. Once more, the reassessment of past fieldwork through up-to-date approaches and methodologies has produced significant results, includ- ing the discovery of the first congregational mosque inside the Umayyad palace.The second part of the volume presents the results of recent fieldwork in the Jericho area (currently located within the Occupied Palestinian Territories). It focuses on the two sites of Tell es-Sultan and Khirbet el-Mafjar. It is unfortunate that this section does not offer detailed reports on other recent work, such as the joint excava- tions at the Chalcolithic site of Tell el-Mafjar (Anfinset 2006; Anfinset et al. 2011), the Byzantine–early Islamic site of Tell el-Hassan (Jennings 2015: 53–66), and the Sycamore Tree site (Belyaev 2016). This would have bet- ter testified to the intensity of the field activities carried out in the Jericho Plain and, above all, the richness of its archaeological and cultural heritage (Nigro, Sala, and Taha 2011), in particular during the Byzantine period. Contributions by Hamdan Taha and Michael Jennings partially fill this gap.Lorenzo Nigro offers a valuable overview on the works of the Italian-Palestinian Expedition to Tell es-Sultan, the most recent field project at the mound that has opened a new phase of research and has also engaged in restoration and tourist rehabilitation of the site. The presentation of research results is significant; whereas conservation, protection, and enhancement activities are not illustrated (among others, the PADIS project deserves a mention: Nigro, Sala, and Taha 2011; http://www.lasapienzatojericho.it/padis/). The investigation carried out by the Italian-Palestinian Expedition has clarified important aspects of the stratigraphy, layout, and orga- nization of the Bronze Age settlement. It has also reas- sessed the information collected by previous expeditions, matching new and old data in a single, comprehensive picture. On the other hand, Nigro’s interpretation of the evidence is largely based on “traditional” models (e.g., in the presentation of the Neolithic, south Levantine urbanism, and Bronze Age chronology): a more criti- cal confrontation with new approaches, theories, and achievements that have developed in the archaeology of the Levant over the past two decades would have been expected.The following two articles present specific studies devel- oped by the Sapienza team. Gaia Ripepi discusses mudbrick technology and offers a detailed technical presentation. However, associated key issues are not addressed in detail, such as the proposed connection between the development of mudbrick technology, large-scale constructions, and the growth of social complexity or the comparison with other building techniques also employed in monumental archi- tecture. Mineral and chemical analyses to determine the composition of mudbricks would also have been a useful addition, as they provide information on the nature of the raw materials used, the manufacturing technology, and the potential use of specific recipes (e.g., Nodarou, Frederick, and Hein 2008; Lorenzon et al. 2020). Chiara Fiaccavento and Elisabetta Gallo provide a thorough stratigraphic and architectural analysis of the impressive Middle Bronze Age fortifications.Donald Whitcomb’s essay introduces a section on the recent Palestinian-American Jericho Mafjar Project. The project focused on the Islamic occupation in the Jericho area. Whitcomb reconsiders the initial investigations at Khirbet el-Mafjar/Qasr Hisham and then presents the results of the renewed excavations carried out under the Jericho Mafjar Project. The latter discovered the north gate and offered insights into the role of Hisham ibn ‘Abd al-Malik and the development of the site during the Abbasid period.Michael Jennings’s contribution illustrates additional research results from the Jericho Mafjar Project. By means of an innovative landscape analysis, Jennings describes the physical and cultural environment in which Khirbet el-Mafjar was built and offers a historical narrative of the settlement in the Jericho Plain from the Hasmonean through Umayyad periods. He shifts the focus from the monumental elite sites (Khirbet el-Mafjar and Tulul Abu el-‘Alayiq) to their surroundings, satellite sites, and Jericho’s urban core. Such an approach greatly expands our percep- tion of the archaeological record in the Jericho area.Hamdan Taha closes this section by outlining the context of recent archaeological works in and around Jericho. He then provides a thorough report of the fieldwork carried out by the Palestinian Department of Antiquities and Cultural Heritage in the Jericho area since it was reestablished in 1994. A large number of sites have been rescued, protected, investigated, and rehabilitated for tourist presentation, also thanks to col- laborations with international partners and Palestinian universities. Of particular interest is the presentation of some of the more than 50 salvage excavations carried out in Jericho, including recently exposed sites. This pre- sentation allows us to have a more complete idea of the impressive archaeological heritage of the Jericho Oasis, with data from the Chalcolithic to the Middle Ages. Taha also addresses the political problems that still make it dif- ficult to manage the heritage in the area: the Palestinian Department does not yet have control over the whole ter- ritory, and this precludes a unitary management of such a unique heritage.The third section ends the volume by addressing the themes of public archaeology and cultural heritage man- agement. Bill Finlayson and Paul Burtenshaw present their experience in the Neolithic of southern Jordan and discuss what could be done in Jericho, an outstand- ing example of Neolithic heritage. They emphasize the importance to protect and present to the public such an important legacy, as the Neolithic is still largely under- estimated by both the tourism industry and the local population. On the other hand, they stress the role that this legacy may play in the development of the local pop- ulation, from an economic, social, and cultural point of view: this means, first of all, engaging local people with this heritage and its management.Jack Green completes the presentation of the recent Palestinian-American works at Khirbet el-Mafjar by illus- trating the Hisham’s Palace Site and Museum Project. A site museum has been set up at Khirbet el-Mafjar, along with new panels and signage installations, in order to update the interpretation and presentation of the site and to promote its development as an archaeological park. Proposals for further improvements are also con- sidered: for example, a management plan for preser- vation and conservation, or the integration of public education into project planning. The article closes the volume by stressing once again how the enhancement of the archaeological heritage can benefit not only the tour- ist experience but also the local community from both an economic and educational point of view.Regrettably, this section does not report on the many mosaic conservation projects, and the related training and educational programs, carried out since 1996 in the Jericho area, including Qasr Hisham itself, the Byzantine Church of St. Andrew, the church of Khirbet en-Nitla, the monas- tery at Tell Deir Abu Ghannam, the Shahwan synagogue, and the synagogue of ‘Ain Duk (Hamdan and Benelli 2008: 19–43; Hamdan 2014, 2017). An overview dedicated to the conservation, presentation, and training activities conducted by the recent Italian-Palestinian Expedition at the site of Tell es-Sultan would have represented a use- ful integration and a successful conclusion to the volume, bringing attention back to the site of ancient Jericho, from which the conference and the discussion started.It is clear throughout the volume that archeological heritage represents a major resource for the Jericho area. This is also thanks to the enduring vitality of archaeo- logical research over the past 150 years. Unfortunately, territorial fragmentation1 still hinders the promotion of a general plan to safeguard and enhance this territory, which preserves such important cultural heritage of worldwide recognition.