Muscularity In Men Research Articles

Age differences in preferences for body physique

Studies have demonstrated the importance of body weight in physical attractiveness, where thinness in women and leanness and muscularity in men are judged to be attractive. However, most research has focused on young adults, while less has investigated whether attractiveness judgments of body weight change with age. Here, we compared young and older adults' preferences for body physique in a Chinese population using 3D human body models. We found that the attractiveness judgments of body physique vary with age, where older adults have weaker preference for thinness in both male and female bodies than did young adults. These results present novel evidence that preferences for body size alters with age. We propose that the variation in preference for thinness is likely due to the difference in resource availability between generations.

Psychometric properties of a Romanian translation of the Functionality Appreciation Scale (FAS)

The Functionality Appreciation Scale (FAS; Alleva et al., 2017) is a 7-item measure of an individual’s appreciation of their body for what it can do and is capable of doing. Although the instrument is increasingly used in interventionist studies, its psychometric properties have been infrequently investigated outside Anglophone populations. Here, we examined psychometric properties of a novel Romanian translation of the FAS. An online sample of 959 Romanian adults (18–73 years old) completed the Romanian FAS, and validated measures of positive body image (body appreciation), negative body image (weight discrepancy in women, drive for muscularity in men), eating disorder symptomatology, and psychological well-being (self-esteem, gratitude). Exploratory factor analyses led to the extraction of a 1-dimensional model of FAS scores, which we confirmed using confirmatory factor analysis. FAS scores achieved scalar invariance across sex, but the sex difference in latent FAS scores did not reach significance (d = 0.15). FAS scores had adequate internal consistency and test-retest reliability up to four weeks, and further analyses provided evidence of convergent, construct, and incremental validity. These results support the psychometric properties of the Romanian FAS and present evidence of the importance of functionality appreciation in relation to healthier body image and psychological well-being.

An examination of pubertal timing effects on drive for muscularity in men.

An examination of pubertal timing effects on drive for muscularity in men.

Drive for Muscularity in Lithuanian Male Students: Psychometrics and Associated Characteristics

Background. The drive for muscularity in men is associated with a negative body image, psychosocial, and physiological outcomes. The aim of the present study was to test the psychometric properties of the Lithuanian version of the Drive for Muscularity Scale (DMS-LT) and associated characteristics in the sample of young adults (men).Methods. The sample consisted of 763 male students. The ages ranged from 18 to 32 years, with a mean age of 20.4 (SD = 3.1). Participants completed the Lithuanian translation of DMS-LT alongside with the measures of disordered eating, sociocultural attitudes towards appearance questionnaire, body mass index, self-esteem, and participation in sports.Results. The instrument showed good internal consistency (Cronbach’s alpha = .92) and test-retest reliability (ICC = .87). The two-dimensional factor structure of the proposed original scale was not confirmed. DMS-LT was negatively correlated with self-esteem. Positive associations were observed between DMS-LT, muscular/athletic body ideal internalization, and disordered eating. Drive for muscularity attitudes and behaviors were more expressed in male students attending sports clubs.Conclusions. The results of the present study support the psychometric properties of the DMS-LT and its’ use in Lithuanian samples of young men. The instrument might also be used in clinical practice. It is important to develop prevention programs that decrease body image concerns and prevent disordered eating in young men. Keywords: drive for muscularity, body image, psychometric properties of the scale, students.

The effects of internalized shame and self-blame on disordered eating and drive for muscularity in collegiate men.

The purpose of the present study was to explore the relative contributions of self-blame and internalized shame to variability in disordered eating and drive for muscularity scores in collegiate men. One hundred and sixty-eight male college students in the Rocky Mountain region of the USA completed valid and reliable self-report survey measures: the Drive for Muscularity Scale, the Internalized Shame Scale, the Shame and Guilt Eating Scale to assess self-blame, and the Eating Attitudes Test. Cross-sectional data were analyzed through descriptive, correlation, and regression statistics. Men who reported higher levels of self-blame, r = 0.39, p < 0.001, and internalized shame, r = 0.38, p < 0.001, also reported higher levels of eating disorder symptomology. Similarly, men who scored higher on internalized shame, r = 0.20, p < 0.01, reported higher scores on drive for muscularity. Regression analyses revealed that internalized shame was the sole contributor to variability in drive for muscularity scores, β = 0.20, p < 0.01, whereas both self-blame, β = 0.27, p < 0.001, and internalized shame, β = 0.24, p < 0.001, contributed to scores on disordered eating attitudes and behaviors in men. Our study was the first to examine how internalized shame and self-blame relate to drive for muscularity and disordered eating in collegiate men. Our results suggest that both self-blame and internalized shame may contribute to disordered eating in men. Additionally, internalized shame appears to relate to drive for muscularity in men. Clinicians may wish to consider how they approach treatment given the potential contributions of internalized shame and self-blame to disordered eating in their male clients. Level V, cross-sectional descriptive study.

Searching for masculine capital: Experiences leading to high drive for muscularity in men.

Studies on the drive for muscularity (DFM) have primarily been quantitative, focused on identifying correlates. Currently little is known about men’s experiences leading them to desire high levels of muscle and engage in behaviours to increase their masculine capital. Our purpose was to explore the stories of men with high DFM revealing the socio-cultural and personal factors leading to DFM and their search for masculine capital. In-depth life-history interviews and multiple in-the-field conversations were undertaken with twenty men (Mean age=28.45, SD=6.96, years) scoring ≥ 3 on the Drive for Muscularity Scale (Mean=4.30, SD=0.70). Men’s stories focused on a set of dysfunctional childhood and adolescent socio-cultural interactions, including forms of symbolic violence, between them and significant others. In these interactions men were exposed to dominant social narratives of masculinity, and through comparisons and reinforcement they identified discrepancies between themselves and these narratives. In late adolescence and early adulthood men came to believe that they lacked masculine capital. Men struggled to increase their masculine capital through engagement with other traditional masculine activities (e.g., sport) and driven by activating events, they compensated through DFM desires and behaviours. This study advances knowledge by revealing the socio-cultural and personal processes participants believed led to their high DFM. Findings disclose that men’s search for masculine capital may have led them to develop and maintain high levels of DFM.

The effects of pubertal timing and alexithymia on symptoms of muscle dysmorphia and the drive for muscularity in men.

The effects of pubertal timing and alexithymia on symptoms of muscle dysmorphia and the drive for muscularity in men.

Do body image investment and evaluation relate to bulimic symptoms in U.S. collegiate men and women in the same way?

Although research suggests that body image investment (i.e., drive for muscularity, orientation toward appearance, preoccupation with weight or weight gain) and body image evaluation factors (e.g., negative evaluations of appearance, overestimation of current weight) correlate with bulimic symptoms, the magnitude of these relationships may differ between men and women. The relationship between bulimic symptoms and the drive for muscularity, one form of body image investment theorized to be particularly relevant to men, is understudied in college students. This study examined bulimic symptoms, body image investment, and body image evaluation in American undergraduate students (84 men, 198 women). Bulimic symptoms were negatively associated with appearance evaluation and positively associated with appearance orientation, weight preoccupation, and weight overestimation in both men and women. Bulimic symptoms were positively associated with the drive for muscularity in men, but not in women. Awareness of the relationships between bulimic symptoms and body image investment and evaluation may help identify those at risk for bulimic symptoms.

Threatened masculinity and muscularity: An experimental examination of multiple aspects of muscularity in men

Two studies examined the threatened masculinity theory of male body dissatisfaction, which posits that threats to masculinity result in increased muscle dissatisfaction. In Study 1, a masculinity threat was followed by tasks examining confidence in physical ability and perceptions of current and ideal body shapes. Results showed that men who experienced a masculinity threat reported lower confidence in their physical ability and perceived themselves as less muscular than men who experienced an affirmation of their masculinity. In Study 2, men were asked to report their intention to increase muscularity and their appearance anxiety following a threat to masculinity. Results showed that men reported lower appearance anxiety and drive for muscularity when their masculinity was threatened than when their masculinity was affirmed. This apparent contradiction can be explained by noting that men may be motivated to deny appearance concerns following a threat to masculinity, as such concerns are equated with femininity.

Drive for Muscularity and Drive for Thinness: The Impact of Pro-Anorexia Websites

In recent years, websites that stress the message of thinness as the ideal and only choice have surfaced on the internet. The possibility that pro-anorexia websites may reinforce restrictive eating and exercise behaviors is an area of concern. In addition, friends may be influencing one another to view these websites, further contributing to drive for thinness in women and drive for muscularity in men. Three hundred male and female undergraduate psychology students responded to questionnaires assessing: internalization of pro-anorexia website content, internalization of general media content, influence of friends to view pro-anorexia websites, peer influence, drive for muscularity, and drive for thinness. Results showed internalization of pro-anorexia website content was positively correlated with drive for thinness in women, and negatively correlated with drive for muscularity in men. Internalization of pro-anorexia website content was found to be related to both drive for thinness in women and drive for muscularity in men.

Familial and peer modeling and verbal commentary: Associations with muscularity-oriented body dissatisfaction and body change behaviors

This study investigated associations between familial and peer modeling of weightlifting and verbal commentary with muscularity-oriented body dissatisfaction and body change behaviors to increase muscularity in men. Participants were 177 male undergraduates who completed self-report questionnaires measuring negative verbal commentary about appearance and encouragement to lift from family and peers, paternal and peer modeling of weightlifting, muscularity-oriented body dissatisfaction and body change behaviors aimed at increasing muscularity. Two hierarchical linear regressions examined the relationships between these social influences and body dissatisfaction and body change behaviors. Both regression models were significant. Peer encouragement to lift and peer negative verbal commentary were significant predictors of body dissatisfaction; paternal and peer modeling and peer encouragement to lift were significant predictors of body change behaviors. These findings confirm the importance of verbal commentary to male body dissatisfaction and also highlight the importance of modeling on men's engagement in body change behaviors to increase muscularity.

Mindfulness, body image, and drive for muscularity in men

Studies have shown that dispositional mindfulness, a construct characterized by awareness and attention to present moment experiences, is associated with body image constructs in women. However, little is known about the relationship between dispositional mindfulness and body image among men. Therefore, this study examined the unique associations between dispositional mindfulness and three body image variables in men: overall appearance evaluation, satisfaction with distinct body areas, and drive for muscularity. Undergraduate men (N=296) completed the Multidimensional Body Self-Relations Questionnaire-Appearance Scales, the Drive for Muscularity Scale, the Mindful Attention Awareness Scale, and the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule. A series of hierarchical regression analyses revealed that mindfulness was uniquely associated with all three body image variables after accounting for body mass index and negative affect. Results are discussed with regard to the potential role of dispositional mindfulness in body dissatisfaction among men.

The measure of a man: Associations between digit ratio and disordered eating in males

The current study sought to determine whether there is a relationship between prenatal testosterone exposure, as indicated by the digit ratios of the second to fourth fingers (2D:4D ratio), and disordered eating and drive for muscularity in men. Digit ratios were calculated by measuring photocopies of participants' finger lengths. Self-reported body image and eating attitudes and behaviors were assessed. There were significant correlations between 2D:4D ratio and disordered eating and drive for leanness, indicating that greater prenatal testosterone exposure was associated with less disordered eating and increased drive for muscularity. This suggests that greater prenatal testosterone exposure may be protective factor against the development of eating disorders in men. Potential mechanisms are discussed.

Psychometric evaluation of the Drive for Muscularity Scale in a community-based sample of Scottish men participating in an organized sporting event

As the drive for muscularity is an important construct for researchers involved in understanding men's body image, having reliable and valid measures of the construct is essential. This study assessed the Drive for Muscularity Scale (DMS) in a community-based sample of 594 Scottish men participating in an organized running event. Exploratory factor analysis revealed two subscales (Muscularity-oriented body image and Muscularity behavior) as well as a higher-order factor. Both subscales and the total score had acceptable levels of internal consistency, test–retest reliability, and construct validity. These findings provide support for the DMS as a measure of the drive for muscularity in men. It is recommended that, in future, careful consideration is given to the distinction between muscularity attitudes and behavior.

The drive for muscularity in men: Media influences and objectification theory

Presently, objectification theory has yielded mixed results when utilized to explain body image concerns in men. An online survey assessing internalization of media ideals, self-objectification, body surveillance, body shame, the drive for muscularity, and body mass index (BMI) was completed by 244 predominantly college-aged males. Path analyses were used to investigate relationships among these variables where it was hypothesized that objectification variables would mediate the relationship between internalization of media ideals and the drive for muscularity. Internalization of media ideals was the strongest predictor of the drive for muscularity, followed by BMI, though variables of objectification theory had no impact on the drive for muscularity contrary to hypotheses. The results suggest that objectification theory may not be applicable to men as it is currently measured.

Cultural expectations of muscularity in men: The evolution of playgirl centerfolds

Cultural expectations of muscularity in men: The evolution of playgirl centerfolds

Cultural expectations of muscularity in men: The evolution of playgirl centerfolds

We sought to assess whether cultural ideals of the male body, as illustrated by magazine models, have changed over the past 25 years. We examined 115 male centerfold models in Playgirl magazine from 1973 to 1997. Using the models' heights and weights quoted by the magazine, together with visual estimates of body fat, we calculated the body mass index (BMI) and fat-free mass index (FFMI) of each model. The Playgirl centerfold models became increasingly "dense" and more muscular over time, as indicated by the significant correlations between BMI, FFMI, and year of publication. These observations, in combination with previous studies, suggest that cultural norms of the ideal male body are growing increasingly muscular.