Muscle-enhancing Behaviors Research Articles

Noticing and Responding to Calorie Labels on Restaurant Menus: Patterns in Sexual-Minority Men

IntroductionA calorie-labeling policy for restaurant menus was implemented in 2018. Whether and how sexual minority men use this information has not been evaluated. MethodsThe Men's Body Project, a 2020 cross-sectional survey study of 504 cisgender sexual minority men (mean age=35.8 ±10.4 years, 71.0% White, 5.6% Asian, 14.3% Black, 9.1% another/multiple race identities) assessed respondents’ awareness of calorie labels on restaurant menus and subsequent responses. Additional questions asked about weight-change goals, body image, disordered eating behaviors, and muscle-enhancing supplement use. Analyses in 2022-2023 used multivariate logistic regression to assess associations between noticing calories and weight- and muscularity-oriented behaviors and, among those who noticed calorie labels, whether participants reported using this information to order more or fewer calories. ResultsApproximately half of participants reported noticing calorie labels. Those who did were more likely to report engaging in disordered eating behaviors (OR=2.03). Among participants who noticed menu labels, ordering fewer calories was the most frequent response, while 25% reported not changing the caloric content of their order. Many participants (21%) reported ordering both more and fewer calories, and this heterogeneous ordering pattern was associated with both disordered eating (OR=4.70) and muscle-enhancing behaviors (OR=9.42), compared to participants who did not report behaviors. Reporting weight-control efforts was associated with ordering fewer calories compared to participants not doing anything to change their weight (OR=2.53). ConclusionsMost participants noticed calorie labels on menus, and many reported subsequently ordering fewer calories. Disordered eating and muscle-enhancing behaviors were associated with behavior changes in response to calorie information.

A Scale Development for Assessing the Drive for Muscularity Among Pakistani Bodybuilders

Objective: The study was devised to develop the indigenous scale of drive for muscularity among Pakistani bodybuilders Method: To explore the manifestation of drive for muscularity phenomenological approach was used, in which open ended question was asked from the 35 gym user men from different gyms. A list of the 28 most frequently reported items after initial screening was generated. For empirical validation Through 4 expert coaches of the gym were approached then pilot study was administered. In main study 211 bodybuilders were included for test the psychometric properties of indigenous scale. Results: On the basis of Eigen value > 1, the 26 items were extracted. Exploratory factor analysis revealed 2 factors of developed scale. The descriptive label was assigned to each factor on the basis of commonality of items termed as “muscle enhancing behaviors” and “thoughts and desires” related muscular body. A significant positive correlation was found between Drive for Muscularity Inventory and Drive for Muscularity Scale. Drive for Muscularity Inventory was also found to be a valid and reliable scale (test-retest reliability =0.82 and split half reliability = 0.87) with acceptable psychometric properties. Conclusion: Indigenous developed Drive for muscularity scale found to have high internal consistency, construct validity, split-half reliability, and test–retest reliability.

Association between dating app use and unhealthy weight control behaviors and muscle enhancing behaviors in sexual minority men: a cross-sectional study

BackgroundBody image concerns are prevalent and are viewed as risk factors for engaging in unhealthy weight control behaviors (UWCBs), such as purging, fasting, and the misuse of laxatives and diet pills. Studies have also linked UWCBs to the development of eating disorders. In the United States (U.S.), sexual minority men (e.g., bisexual, gay, and men who have sex with men) are prone to UWCBs often as a result of societal pressures to achieve certain standards of appearance – of which are often perpetuated through various media platforms. A growing number of studies have explored the possible role mobile dating applications (“dating apps”) play in contributing to UWCBs. To our knowledge, such studies have not explored this possible relationship between dating apps and UWCBs in sexual minority men (SMM). To fill this gap in the scientific literature, the present study assessed the association between dating app use and UWCBs and muscle enhancing behaviors among a sample of adult SMM in the U.S.Method549 SMM participated in an anonymous survey from Qualtrics Survey Panels. UWCBs and muscle enhancing behaviors were assessed through items adapted from national surveys. Body image dissatisfaction was assessed using the Male Body Attitudes Scales. Participants also reported their history of dating app use. We performed descriptive statistics, chi-square tests, and student’s t-tests. Multivariable logistic regression models assessed the relationship between dating app use and UWCBs and muscle enhancing behaviors.ResultsDating app users had significantly higher body image dissatisfaction scores than non-users. Dating app users also demonstrated significantly elevated odds of engaging in four UWCBs and muscle enhancing behaviors: laxatives, diet pills, muscle-building supplements, and protein powders.ConclusionsThis is one of the first studies to assess dating app use and its association with UWCBs and muscle enhancing behaviors in SMM. Increased surveillance and detection for such behaviors among SMM, particularly those using dating apps, are needed.

Yoga practice among ethnically/racially diverse emerging adults: Associations with body image, mindful and disordered eating, and muscle-enhancing behaviors.

This study explores cross-sectional associations between yoga and body image, mindful eating, disordered eating, and muscle-enhancing behaviors among a population-based sample of ethnically/racially diverse emerging adults. An ethnically/racially diverse population-based sample of 1,568 emerging adults (18-26 years) completed surveys as part of EAT 2010-2018 (Eating and Activity over Time). Models were adjusted for sociodemographic characteristics and body mass index (BMI). Practicing yoga at least 30 min/week was reported by 12.7% (n = 210) of the sample. Yoga practitioners had higher levels of mindful eating than those not practicing yoga. Although effect sizes were small, yoga practitioners were more likely than non-yoga practitioners to use steroids (3.8 vs. 0.7%, p < .001, h = 0.22) or protein powder/shakes (35.1 vs. 25.3%, p < .010, h = 0.21) to increase their muscle size/tone. Body satisfaction, unhealthy weight control behaviors, and binge eating tended to be similar among yoga practitioners and non-yoga practitioners. There was a significant interaction between BMI and yoga in predicting body satisfaction with a trend toward a positive impact among yoga practitioners at higher BMI values. Interactions between yoga practice and all body image attitudes and behaviors across gender and ethnicity/race were not statistically significant. Young people from diverse ethnic/racial backgrounds who practice yoga are more likely to engage in mindful eating but have equal or elevated levels of unhealthy body image attitudes and behaviors as compared to non-yoga practitioners. Further research should explore how yoga is best taught and practiced to ensure that it is beneficial for body image and related behaviors.

Prevalence and correlates of muscle-enhancing behaviors among adolescents and young adults in the United States.

To determine the prevalence of muscle-enhancing behaviors in adolescents and young adults using a nationally representative sample in the USA and to examine differences by sex, race/ethnicity, age, socioeconomic status, body mass index, and participation in team sports. Prospective cohort data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health, Waves I through III (1994-2002) were analyzed. Engagement in muscle-enhancing behaviors including dietary changes, exercise and weightlifting, supplement use, performance-enhancing substances, and anabolic androgenic steroids were recorded. Multiple logistic regression models using generalized estimating equations, incorporating robust standard errors with clustering by school and within persons, and using national sample weighting, were used to determine associations with muscle-enhancing behaviors across three data collection waves. Of the 18,924 adolescents at baseline, 29.2% of males and 7.0% of females reported weight gain attempts, while 25.2% of males and 3.8% of females reported any muscle-enhancing behavior. All muscle-enhancing behaviors were more common in males compared to females (p<0.001). Among young men 18-26 years old, 15.6% reported using legal performance enhancing substances and 2.7% reported using androgenic anabolic steroids. Factors that were associated with muscle-enhancing behaviors in males across three data collection waves included Black or Hispanic/Latino race/ethnicity, age over 14 years, higher parental education, lower body mass index, and participation in team sports. Muscle-enhancing behaviors ranging from dietary changes to supplement and androgenic anabolic steroid use are common among adolescent and young adult males. Clinicians should consider screening for muscle-enhancing behaviors in these populations.

Psychosocial factors underlying symptoms of muscle dysmorphia in a non-clinical sample of men

Muscle dysmorphia is primarily characterized by an excessive preoccupation that one's body is not muscular or lean enough. Muscle dysmorphia has shown clinical similarities with eating disorders. The present study aims to explore the psychosocial factors underlying muscle dysmorphia symptoms by referring to Stice's dual pathway model (1994), a theoretical model of eating disorders. Three hundred and eighty-six men were recruited to complete an online survey including questionnaires assessing social pressures to reach a muscular body and internalization of the muscular body, drive for muscularity, muscular-enhancing behaviors, negative affect, narcissistic traits, and symptoms of muscle dysmorphia. Path analyses showed that the original model has a good fit, without, however, confirming a significant relationship between the drive for muscularity and negative affect. Thus, social pressure to reach a muscular body and its internalization were associated to a drive for muscularity and then, to muscle dysmorphia symptoms. The drive for muscularity was indirectly related to symptoms of muscle dysmorphia through muscle-enhancing behaviors as well as negative affect (although, only for individuals with higher levels of narcissistic vulnerability). Results supported the adaptation of the Stice's model to explain muscle dysmorphia symptoms and underlined the possible influence of narcissistic vulnerability traits in this condition.

Significant others' weight-related comments and their associations with weight-control behavior, muscle-enhancing behavior, and emotional well-being.

This large mixed-method study examines the prevalence of reported positive and negative weight-related comments from significant others and ways in which they are associated with weight-control and muscle-enhancing behaviors and emotional well-being in young adults. As part of Project EAT (Eating and Activity in Teens and Young Adults)-IV, survey data were provided by 1,436 young adult men and women with a significant other in 2015-2016 (mean age = 31.1 years; 58.6% women). Independent variables included the reported frequency of receiving positive or negative comments about body shape or size; written examples of positive comments were qualitatively coded for subtypes. Analysis of covariance, adjusting for body mass index, tested associations between comments and weight-control behaviors, muscle-enhancing behaviors, and various measures of emotional well-being (i.e., body satisfaction, self-esteem, and depressive symptoms). About twice as many participants received positive comments from their significant others compared to negative comments (75% vs. 36%). Receiving positive and/or negative comments was related to body satisfaction, self-esteem, and depressive symptoms but was largely unrelated to weight-control and muscle-enhancing behaviors. In almost all cases, receiving no comments was associated with significantly better well-being than was receiving only negative comments. There were few differences in weight-control or muscle-enhancing behaviors or emotional well-being across subtypes of positive comments. Reporting the receipt of negative comments from significant others was associated with poorer emotional well-being than was receiving positive comments or no weight-related comments at all. Therapists and other health professionals working with couples should consider advising young adults on the apparent advantages of providing positive feedback regarding weight and shape or abstaining from commenting altogether. (PsycINFO Database Record

The psycho-behavioral correlates of a drive to be toned among female university students

Maladaptive psycho-behavioral concomitants of an increased drive for muscularity among men are well-documented (Pope et al., 1997). In recent years, media outlets aimed at women have promoted the idea that the ideal female physique is toned and strong, with sculptured abs. We suggest that the male drive to become muscular and the female drive to become toned are similar. However, less is known regarding the psycho-behavioral characteristics of women attempting to become toned. Our qualitative study examined women's beliefs and attitudes towards female muscularity. Twenty-two female university students ages 18 to 32 participated in focus groups addressing what it means for a woman to be toned and the physique enhancement strategies used by women today. Participants frequently indicated that being “in shape” is a feminine body ideal and being toned equates to empowerment and self-worth. Participants noted that weight-training and replacing meals with protein shakes or food supplements were typical physique enhancing strategies. We suggest that the drive to be toned can lead to women employing self-destructive physique enhancing strategies similar to those utilized by men who demonstrate an obsessive drive to become muscular. Therefore, researchers examining female body image concerns should be cognisant of muscle-enhancing attitudes and behaviors.

Body image concerns, muscle-enhancing behaviors, and eating disorders in males.

Body image concerns among adolescents and young adults are prevalent; almost half of adolescent girls report being dissatisfied with theway their bodies look.1 Body dissatisfaction can have serious adverse consequences, including disordered eating behaviors, eatingdisorders, andobesity. Longitudinal studieshave shown that body dissatisfaction does not motivate young people to engage in healthier eating and physical activity behaviors.2 Body dissatisfactionhasbeenfoundtobeassociatedwitha lower likelihoodofhealthpromoting behaviors such as physical activity and eating fruits and vegetables.2Becausebodydissatisfactiondoesnotmotivateyoung people to engage in health-promoting behaviors, it is important to helpyoungpeople feelbetter about theirbodies topromoteasense of positive well-being and healthier behaviors. Most research on body dissatisfaction emphasizes weight and shape dissatisfaction (eg, wanting to be thinner) in female populations. More recently realized is the importance of body image in adolescent males and the relevance of muscularity for both adolescent males and females.3-5 In a study of 5527 adolescent boys aged 12 to 18 years published in JAMA Pediatrics, Field and colleagues6 showed that adolescent boys have concerns aboutmuscularity and engage in muscle-enhancing behaviors: 17.9% were highly concerned, including 2.4% who used products to enhance muscularity at some point in the 1999-2011 study period. Muscle-enhancing behaviors, and to a lesser extent, muscle-related concerns, were found to longitudinally predict the onset of binge drinking and drug use. Given these findings, clinicians should address muscularity JAMAPEDIATRICS

Weight-Related Teasing in the School Environment: Associations with Psychosocial Health and Weight Control Practices Among Adolescent Boys and Girls

Weight-related teasing has been found to be associated with low self-esteem, depressive symptoms, body dissatisfaction, and weight control behaviors in adolescents. While research has typically examined weight-related teasing directed towards the individual, little is known about weight-related teasing at the school level. This study aimed to determine the association between the school-level prevalence of weight-related teasing and psychosocial factors, body dissatisfaction and weight control behaviors in adolescents. Adolescents (N = 2,793; 53.2% female) attending 20 US public middle and high schools were surveyed as part of the Eating and Activity in Teens (EAT) 2010 study. Generalized estimating equations were used to estimate the association between school-level weight-related teasing and health variables, controlling for individual-level weight-related teasing, clustering of individuals within schools, and relevant covariates. A greater school-level prevalence of weight-related teasing was associated with lower self-esteem and greater body fat dissatisfaction in girls, and greater depressive symptoms in boys, over and above individual-level weight-related teasing. Dieting was associated with the school-level prevalence of weight-related teasing in analysis adjusted for covariates in girls, but not following adjustment for individual-level weight-related teasing. Unhealthy weight control behaviors, extreme weight control behaviors, and muscle-enhancing behaviors were not associated with the school-level prevalence of weight-related teasing in girls or boys. Findings from the current study, in conjunction with previous findings showing associations between weight-related teasing, psychological concerns, and weight control behaviors, highlight the importance of implementing strategies to decrease weight-related teasing in schools.

Prevalence of Adolescents' Self-Weighing Behaviors and Associations With Weight-Related Behaviors and Psychological Well-Being

To examine the relationships between self-weighing frequency, and weight-related behaviors and psychological well-being in a population-based sample of adolescents. This study compared weight-related behaviors between infrequent and frequent self-weighers, stratified by weight status and gender. Data were from Project EAT 2010 (Eating and Activity in Teens), a population-based study of 2,778 adolescents. Approximately 14% of girls and boys weighed themselves frequently (weekly or more). In comparison to girls who were infrequent self-weighers, girls who were frequent self-weighers were more likely to diet, engage in unhealthy and extreme weight control behaviors, use unhealthy muscle-enhancing behaviors, and have lower self-esteem and greater body dissatisfaction. In comparison to boys who were infrequent self-weighers, boys who were frequent self-weighers were more likely to diet, engage in unhealthy and extreme weight control behaviors, use unhealthy muscle-enhancing behaviors, and report greater depressive symptoms. Among overweight adolescents, in addition to being associated with these harmful outcomes, frequent self-weighing was associated with the use of healthy weight control behaviors and with higher levels of moderate-to-vigorous activity. Findings indicate that adolescents who frequently self-weigh themselves are at increased risk for a number of problematic health behaviors and poorer psychological outcomes. For overweight adolescents, frequent self-weighing was additionally associated with a number of positive outcomes. Based upon these findings, any recommendations for weight monitoring should be made cautiously; all adolescents, including overweight adolescents, should be advised not to engage in frequent self-weighing behaviors. Furthermore, any adolescents engaging in frequent self-weighing behaviors should be monitored for problematic outcomes.

Muscle-enhancing behaviors among adolescent girls and boys.

Media images of men and women have become increasingly muscular, and muscle-enhancing techniques are available to youth. Identifying populations at risk for unhealthy muscle-enhancingbehaviors is of considerable public health importance. The current study uses a large and diverse population-based sample of adolescents to examine the prevalence of muscle-enhancing behaviors and differences across demographic characteristics, weight status, and sports team involvement. Survey data from 2793 diverse adolescents (mean age = 14.4) were collected at 20 urban middle and high schools. Use of 5 muscle-enhancing behaviors was assessed (changing eating, exercising, protein powders, steroids and other muscle-enhancing substances), and a summary score reflecting use of 3 or more behaviors was created. Logistic regression was used to test for differences in each behavior across age group, race/ethnicity, socioeconomic status, BMI category, and sports team participation. Muscle-enhancing behaviors were common in this sample for both boys and girls. For example, 34.7% used protein powders or shakes and 5.9% reported steroid use. Most behaviors were significantly more common among boys. In models mutually adjusted for all covariates, grade level, Asian race, BMI category, and sports team participation were significantly associated with the use of muscle-enhancing behaviors. For example, overweight (odds ratio = 1.45) and obese (odds ratio = 1.90) girls had significantly greater odds of using protein powders or shakes than girls of average BMI. The use of muscle-enhancing behaviors is substantially higher than has been previously reported and is cause for concern. Pediatricians and other health care providers should ask their adolescent patients about muscle-enhancing behaviors.

Muscle-enhancing Behaviors Among Adolescent Girls and Boys

Muscle-enhancing Behaviors Among Adolescent Girls and Boys

Associations between friends' disordered eating and muscle-enhancing behaviors

Dieting, unhealthy weight control and muscle-enhancing behaviors are common among adolescents: friends are a probable source of influence on these behaviors. The present study uses data provided by nominated friends to examine associations between friends' disordered eating and muscle-enhancing behaviors and participants' own behaviors in a diverse sample of American youth. Male and female adolescents (mean age = 14.4) completed surveys and identified their friends from a class roster; friends' survey data were then linked to each participant. Participants (N = 2126) who had at least one nominated friend were included in the analytic sample. Independent variables were created using the same weight control and muscle-enhancing behaviors reported by nominated friends, and were used in logistic regression models to test associations between participants' and their friends' behaviors, stratified by gender. Results indicated that dieting, disordered eating and muscle-enhancing behaviors were common in this sample, and selected friends' behaviors were associated with the same behaviors in participants. For example, girls whose friends reported extreme weight control behaviors had significantly greater odds of using these behaviors than girls whose friends did not report these same behaviors (OR = 2.39). This research suggests that friends' weight- and shape-related behaviors are a feature of social relationships, and is the first report demonstrating these associations for muscle-enhancing behaviors. Capitalizing on the social element may be important to the development of increasingly effective intervention and prevention programs.

Self-Weighing Behaviors in Young Adults: Tipping the Scale Toward Unhealthy Eating Behaviors?

This study examined associations between frequency of self-weighing and healthy weight-control behaviors (WCBs), unhealthy WCBs, muscle-enhancing behaviors (e.g., steroid use, protein powders), and psychological well-being (i.e., self-esteem, depression, body satisfaction) in a community sample of young adults. Data were drawn from Project EAT-III (Eating and Activity in Teens and Young Adults), the third wave of a population-based study. Participants included young adults (n = 2,287, mean age = 25.3 years) from the Minneapolis/St. Paul metropolitan area. Self-weighing a few times per week or more frequently was reported by 18% of young adult women and 12% of young adult men. Linear regression models, adjusted for body mass index and demographic characteristics, indicated that in both women and men, more frequent self-weighing was associated with a higher prevalence of dieting, both healthy and unhealthy WCBs, and muscle-enhancing behaviors. Additionally, young women who reported more frequent self-weighing were more likely to report binge eating. More frequent self-weighing was also associated with more depressive symptoms and lower self-esteem in women and lower body satisfaction in young men. More frequent self-weighing is associated with healthy and unhealthy weight-control practices, muscle-enhancing behaviors, and poorer psychological well-being in young adults. Young adults engaging in self-weighing behaviors should be screened for these health indicators and counseled as appropriate. Before recommending self-weighing as a weight-monitoring tool, health care providers should ensure that young adults are not at risk for an unhealthy preoccupation with body weight or shape.

2. Disordered Eating and Muscle-enhancing Behaviors Among Friends: A Social Network Analysis

2. Disordered Eating and Muscle-enhancing Behaviors Among Friends: A Social Network Analysis