Muscle Energy Cost Research Articles

How do differences in Achilles' tendon moment arm lengths affect muscle-tendon dynamics and energy cost during running?

The relationship between the Achilles tendon moment arm length (ATMA) and the energy cost of running (Erun) has been disputed. Some studies suggest a short ATMA reduces Erun while others claim a long ATMA reduces Erun. For a given ankle joint moment, a short ATMA permits a higher tendon strain energy storage, whereas a long ATMA reduces muscle fascicle force and muscle energy cost but shortening velocity is increased, elevating the metabolic cost. These are all conflicting mechanisms to reduce Erun, since AT energy storage comes at a metabolic cost. Neither of these proposed mechanisms have been examined together. We measured ATMA using the tendon travel method in 17 males and 3 females (24 ± 3 years, 75 ± 11 kg, 177 ± 7 cm). They ran on a motorized treadmill for 10 min at 2.5 m · s-1 while Erun was measured. AT strain energy storage, muscle lengths, velocities and muscle energy cost were calculated during time-normalized stance from force and ultrasound data. A short (SHORT n = 11, ATMA = 29.5 ± 2.0 mm) and long (LONG, n = 9, ATMA = 36.6 ± 2.5 mm) ATMA group was considered based on a bimodal distribution of measured ATMA. Mean Erun was 4.9 ± 0.4 J · kg-1 · m-1. The relationship between ATMA and Erun was not significant (r 2 = 0.13, p = 0.12). Maximum AT force during stance was significantly lower in LONG (5,819 ± 1,202 N) compared to SHORT (6,990 ± 920 N, p = 0.028). Neither AT stretch nor AT strain energy storage was different between groups (mean difference: 0.3 ± 1 J · step-1, p = 0.84). Fascicle force was significantly higher in SHORT (508 ± 93 N) compared to LONG (468 ± 84 N. p = 0.02). Fascicle lengths and velocities were similar between groups (p > 0.72). Muscle energy cost was significantly lower in LONG (0.028 ± 0.08 J · kg · step-1) compared to SHORT (0.045 ± 0.14 J · kg · step-1 p = 0.004). There was a significant negative relationship between ATMA and total muscle energy cost relative to body mass across the stance phase (r = -0.699, p < 0.001). Together these results suggest that a LONG ATMA serves to potentially reduce Erun by reducing the muscle energy cost of the plantarflexors during stance. The relative importance of AT energy storage and return in reducing Erun should be re-considered.

Effect of habitual foot-strike pattern on the gastrocnemius medialis muscle-tendon interaction and muscle force production during running.

The interaction between gastrocnemius medialis (GM) muscle and Achilles tendon, i.e., muscle-tendon unit (MTU) interaction, plays an important role in minimizing the metabolic cost of running. Foot-strike pattern (FSP) has been suggested to alter MTU interaction and subsequently the metabolic cost of running. However, metabolic data from experimental studies on FSP are inconsistent, and a comparison of MTU interaction between FSP is still lacking. We, therefore, investigated the effect of habitual rearfoot and mid-/forefoot striking on MTU interaction, ankle joint work, and plantar flexor muscle force production while running at 10 and 14 km/h. GM muscle fascicles of 9 rearfoot and 10 mid-/forefoot strikers were tracked using dynamic ultrasonography during treadmill running. We collected kinetic and kinematic data and used musculoskeletal models to determine joint angles and calculate MTU lengths. In addition, we used dynamic optimization to assess plantar flexor muscle forces. During ground contact, GM fascicle shortening ( P = 0.02) and average contraction velocity ( P = 0.01) were 40-45% greater in rearfoot strikers than mid-/forefoot strikers. Differences in contraction velocity were especially prominent during early ground contact. Moreover, GM ( P = 0.02) muscle force was greater during early ground contact in mid-/forefoot strikers than rearfoot strikers. Interestingly, we did not find differences in stretch or recoil of the series elastic element between FSP. Our results suggest that, for the GM, the reduced muscle energy cost associated with lower fascicle contraction velocity in mid-/forefoot strikers may be counteracted by greater muscle forces during early ground contact. NEW & NOTEWORTHY Kinetic and kinematic differences between foot-strike patterns during running imply (not previously reported) altered muscle-tendon interaction. Here, we studied muscle-tendon interaction using ultrasonography. We found greater fascicle contraction velocities and lower muscle forces in rearfoot compared with mid-/forefoot strikers. Our results suggest that the higher metabolic energy demand due to greater fascicle contraction velocities might offset the lower metabolic energy demand due to lower muscle forces in rearfoot compared with mid-/forefoot strikers.

Changes in Achilles tendon stiffness and energy cost following a prolonged run in trained distance runners.

During prolonged running, the magnitude of Achilles tendon (AT) length change may increase, resulting in increased tendon strain energy return with each step. AT elongation might also affect the magnitude of triceps surae (TS) muscle shortening and shortening velocity, requiring greater activation and increased muscle energy cost. Therefore, we aimed to quantify the tendon strain energy return and muscle energy cost necessary to allow energy storage to occur prior to and following prolonged running. 14 trained male (n = 10) and female (n = 4) distance runners (24±4 years, 1.72±0.09 m, 61±10 kg, 64.6±5.8 ml•kg-1•min-1) ran 90 minutes (RUN) at approximately 85% of lactate threshold speed (sLT). Prior to and following RUN, AT stiffness and running energy cost (Erun) at 85% sLT were determined. AT energy return was calculated from AT stiffness, measured with dynamometry and ultrasound and estimated TS force during stance. TS energy cost was estimated on the basis of AT force and assumed crossbridge mechanics and energetics. Following RUN, AT stiffness was reduced from 328±172 N•mm-1 to 299±148 N•mm-1 (p = 0.022). Erun increased from 4.56±0.32 J•kg-1•m-1 to 4.62±0.32 J•kg-1•m-1 (p = 0.049). Estimated AT energy return was not different following RUN (p = 0.99). Estimated TS muscle energy cost increased significantly by 11.8±12.3 J•stride-1, (p = 0.0034), accounting for much of the post-RUN increase in Erun (8.6±14.5 J•stride-1,r2 = 0.31). These results demonstrate that a prolonged, submaximal run can reduce AT stiffness and increase Erun in trained runners, and that the elevated TS energy cost contributes substantially to the elevated Erun.

Core muscle characteristics during walking of patients with multiple sclerosis.

The purpose of this study was to investigate core muscle characteristics during walking in patients with multiple sclerosis (MS). Eight patients (4 men) with relapsing-remitting MS (aged 44.9 +/- 8.6 yr) and sex-matched controls (37.9 +/- 8.4 yr) walked on a treadmill for 15 min at a self-selected speed. Positron emission tomography/computed tomography imaging was used to measure core muscle activity immediately after walking based on glucose uptake. Activity was not different between the MS and control group for any of the identified muscles (p > 0.28). Within the MS group, side differences in activity were identified in the lateral flexor group, the external and internal obliques, and the rectus abdominis (p < 0.05), with the less-affected side being activated more. Furthermore, greater muscle volume was found on the more-affected side of the transversus abdominis, quadratus lumborum, and the low-back extensor group (p < 0.03). These muscle characteristics suggest patients with MS utilize compensatory mechanisms during walking to maintain balance and posture. These strategies likely result in increased muscle energy cost and early fatigability.

Achilles tendon strain energy in distance running: consider the muscle energy cost.

The return of tendon strain energy is thought to contribute to reducing the energy cost of running (Erun). However, this may not be consistent with the notion that increased Achilles tendon (AT) stiffness is associated with a lower Erun. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to quantify the potential for AT strain energy return relative to Erun for male and female runners of different abilities. A total of 46 long distance runners [18 elite male (EM), 12 trained male (TM), and 16 trained female (TF)] participated in this study. Erun was determined by indirect calorimetry at 75, 85, and 95% of the speed at lactate threshold (sLT), and energy cost per stride at each speed was estimated from previously reported stride length (SL)-speed relationships. AT force during running was estimated from reported vertical ground reaction force (Fz)-speed relationships, assuming an AT:ground reaction force moment arm ratio of 1.5. AT elongation was quantified during a maximal voluntary isometric contraction using ultrasound. Muscle energy cost was conservatively estimated on the basis of AT force and estimated cross-bridge mechanics and energetics. Significant group differences existed in sLT (EM > TM > TF; P < 0.001). A significant group × speed interaction was found in the energy storage/release per stride (TM > TF > EM; P < 0.001), the latter ranging from 10 to 70 J/stride. At all speeds and in all groups, estimated muscle energy cost exceeded energy return (P < 0.001). These results show that during distance running the muscle energy cost is substantially higher than the strain energy release from the AT.

Effects of a prior high‐intensity knee‐extension exercise on muscle recruitment and energy cost: a combined local and global investigation in humans

The effects of a priming exercise bout on both muscle energy production and the pattern of muscle fibre recruitment during a subsequent exercise bout are poorly understood. The purpose of the present study was to determine whether a prior exercise bout which is known to increase O(2) supply and to induce a residual acidosis could alter energy cost and muscle fibre recruitment during a subsequent heavy-intensity knee-extension exercise. Fifteen healthy subjects performed two 6 min bouts of heavy exercise separated by a 6 min resting period. Rates of oxidative and anaerobic ATP production, determined with (31)P-magnetic resonance spectroscopy, and breath-by-breath measurements of pulmonary oxygen uptake were obtained simultaneously. Changes in muscle oxygenation and muscle fibre recruitment occurring within the quadriceps were measured using near-infrared spectroscopy and surface electromyography. The priming heavy-intensity exercise increased motor unit recruitment (P < 0.05) in the early part of the subsequent exercise bout but did not alter muscle energy cost. We also observed a reduced deoxygenation time delay, whereas the deoxygenation amplitude was increased (P < 0.01). These changes were associated with an increased oxidative ATP cost after approximately 50 s (P < 0.05) and a slight reduction in the overall anaerobic rate of ATP production (0.11 +/- 0.04 mM min(-1) W(-1) for bout 1 and 0.06 +/- 0.11 mM min(-1) W(-1) for bout 2; P < 0.05). We showed that a priming bout of heavy exercise led to an increased recruitment of motor units in the early part of the second bout of heavy exercise. Considering the increased oxidative cost and the unaltered energy cost, one could suggest that our results illustrate a reduced metabolic strain per fibre.

Human energy - optimal control of disturbance rejection during constrained standing

An optimal control system that enables a subject to stand without hand support in the sagittal plane was designed. The subject was considered as a double inverted pendulum structure with a voluntarily controlled degree of freedom in the upper trunk and artificially controlled degree of freedom in the ankle joints. The control system design was based on a minimization of cost function that estimated the effort of the ankle joint muscles through observation of the ground reaction force position relative to the ankle joint axis. By maintaining the centre of pressure close to the ankle joint axis the objective of the upright stance is fulfilled with minimal ankle muscle energy cost. The performance of the developed controller was evaluated in a simulation-based study. The results were compared with the responses of an unimpaired subject to different disturbances in the sagittal plane. The proposed cost function was shown to produce a reasonable approximation of human natural behaviour.