Indian Muntjac Research Articles

Functional Dissection of Mitosis Using Immortalized Fibroblasts from the Indian Muntjac, a Placental Mammal with Only Three Chromosomes.

During cell division in eukaryotes a microtubule-based network undergoes drastic changes and remodeling to assemble a mitotic spindle competent to segregate chromosomes. Several model systems have been widely used to dissect the molecular and structural mechanisms behind mitotic spindle assembly and function. These include budding and fission yeasts, which are ideal for genetic and molecular approaches, but show limitations in high-resolution live-cell imaging, while being evolutionarily distant from humans. On the other hand, systems that were historically used for their exceptional properties for live-cell imaging of mitosis (e.g., newt lung cells and Haemanthus endosperm cells) lack the necessary genomic tools for molecular studies. In a CRISPR-Cas9 era, human cultured cells have conquered the privilege to be positioned among the most powerful genetically manipulatable systems, but their high chromosome number remains a significant bottleneck for the molecular dissection of mitosis in mammals. We believe that we can significantly broaden this scenario by establishing a unique placental mammal model system that combines the powerful genetic tools and low chromosome number of fission yeast and Drosophila melanogaster, with the exceptional cytological features of a rat kangaroo cell. This system is based on hTERT-immortalized fibroblasts from a female Indian muntjac, a placental mammal with the lowest known chromosome number (n=3). Here we describe a series of methodologies established in our laboratory for the study of mitosis in Indian muntjac. These include standard techniques such as immunofluorescence, western blotting, and FISH, but also several state-of-the-art methodologies, including live-cell imaging, cell confinement, RNAi, super-resolution STED microscopy, and laser microsurgery.

Some ecological aspects of dhole (Cuon alpinus) in the Huai Kha Khaeng Wildlife Sanctuary, Uthai Thani Province, Thailand

Abstract The dhole (Cuon alpinus) is one of the least frequent studied endangered canid species and many aspects of ecological knowledge about this species are lacking. The objectives of this study were to investigate the spatial movement of dholes, prey abundance, prey selection, and prey overlaps with other large carnivorous species in the Huai Kha Khaeng Wildlife Sanctuary, Thailand, during November, 2017 and October, 2018. Two adult female dholes were captured and fitted with GPS collars. Twenty camera trap sets were systematically used to survey the area. Scat collection was conducted along forest roads and trails. The home range sizes and activity radii of the two dholes were 3,151.63 ha. and 1,442.84 m, and 33.39 ha and 331.56 m, respectively. The sambar deer (Rusa unicolor) was the most abundant prey species (30.93%). However, dhole fecal analysis showed that the monitored dholes preferred red muntjac (Muntiacus muntjak) (57.1%). There was a high degree of prey overlap between dholes and leopards (98%), indicating very high prey competition. The dholes in this study represent movement patterns in richly abundant prey habitats, but with the presence of other predators that can affect prey selection and movement patterns of the dhole in the area.

Timor Deer (Cervus Timorensis) Arrest System Marind People with Tidal Local Wisdom

Deer are wildlife that has economic value because it can produce meat, leather, and velvet (young horn). Deer populations in nature have decreased due to uncontrolled wild poaching and damage to habitat. Indonesia has five types of deer, i.e., Cervus unicolor, Cervus timorensis, Axis kuhlii, Muntiacus Muntjak, and Axis axis (deer total). However, deer in Indonesia that have the opportunity to be empowered, there are several types, namely Cervus timorensis, Cervus unicolor and Axis axis, and in Merauke, especially in the had tribe0 has its distinctive characteristic in the process of catching deer. The purpose of the study was to know the pattern of deer arrest by the Malind tribe. The method used in this research is to conduct surveys and Wawan ways as well as observation of the field, the data in the analysis in a descriptive approach to conclude the investigation. The results showed that the pattern of deer caught in the Marind tribe traditionally done with snares, bamboo rinsing, as well as patterns carried out covering the forest burning Sawvana in the dry season of the cattle, besieged fire and dwelling on the land, and the season The community rained to the deck area (dense forest) that became the deer's dwelling and avoided the puddle of the sea, and the community captured it quickly. The chance of this research is the process of catching deer, in general, is done by the had in 2 ways that in the summer by burning and drought with the trap system.

Mammals Biodiversity in Balik Bukit and Balai Kencana Resort, Bukit Barisan Selatan National Park

Mammals biodiversity have been observed based on camera trap in Resort Balik Bukit and Balai Kencana. This research to know the diversity of mammals in Balik Bukit and Balai Kencana Resort, Bukit Barisan Selatan National Park, under the program and collaboration with WWF Indonesia Southern Sumatera Program. A total of 36 units of camera traps mounted randomly on 31 grid cells (2x2). Photos and videos data sorted manually based on the species of animals found and processed using the Advanced Renamer Application, Karen Directory Printer, Ms. Excel and ArcGIS. There are 23 species of mammals (13 families, N=3756). The most common animals were red muntjac (Muntiacus muntjak) (n=356) and pig-tailed macaque (Macaca nemestrina) (n=346), while the fewest were siamang (Symphalangus syndactylus), banded linsang (Prionodon linsang), sunda stink-badger (Mydaus javanensis) and short-tailed mongoose (Herpestes brachyurus) (n=1).

The Diversity and Abundance of Artiodactyla Using Camera Traps in Forest Management Unit I Pesisir Barat

Artiodactyla is a wild animal that has an important role in ecology. The purpose of this study was to determine the diversity and abundance of species of order Artiodactyla in the Forest Management Unit (KPH) I Pesisir Barat. 19 units of camera traps were installed randomly within 14 observation stations (grid cells). Images of animals captured by camera traps on each grid cell were used to analyze the diversity and relative abundance of each species. The results of the diversity analysis showed that the Artiodactyla species found consisted of wild boar (Sus scrofa Linnaeus, 1758), muntjac (Muntiacus muntjak Zimmermann, 1780), lesser oriental chevrotain (Tragulus kanchil Raffles, 1821), sambar deer (Rusa unicolor Kerr, 1792), greater oriental chevrotain (Tragulus napu Cuvier, 1822), and Sumatran serow (Capricornis sumatraensis Bechstein, 1799). Species with the highest relative abundance were wild boar (42,33%) while the lowest was Sumatran wild goats (0,41%). The existence of Artiodactyla could play a role in maintaining the stability of the ecosystem particularly as a seed disperser and supports the presence of predators in the food chain process. Therefore, the KPH I Pesisir Barat forest areas as a habitat for wildlife must be sustainably managed.Keywords: Artiodactyla, diversity, abundance, camera trap

Effects of nonlethal tourist activity on the diel activity patterns of mammals in a National Park in Peninsular Malaysia

The activity patterns of mammals are highly variable across species and can be affected by many factors, such as daytime length (i.e., sunrise to sunset), temperature, precipitation, predator–prey or competitive interactions and human activities. However, while several studies have investigated the seasonal and diel activity patterns of mammals using camera traps, information on their diel activity patterns in relation to nonlethal tourist activity is limited. Therefore, here, we conducted video-camera-trap surveys in Endau Rompin National Park in Peninsular Malaysia to examine the detection rates and diel activity patterns of the mammals living there, as well as differences in their diel activity patterns between the open and closed tourist seasons. Barking deer (Muntiacus muntjak), bearded pig (Sus barbatus), wild boar (S. scrofa), greater oriental chevrotain (Tragulus napu) and Malayan tapir (Tapirus indicus) exhibited significant differences in their diel activities among time periods: Malayan tapir was predominantly nocturnal, the greater oriental chevrotain was predominantly crepuscular and all other species were strongly diurnal. In addition, the data indicated that the Malayan porcupine (Hystrix brachyura) was nocturnal and the Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) was cathemeral, although the differences between time periods were not significant for these species. The detection frequencies of barking deer, bearded pig, wild boar and Malayan porcupine were higher in the open season. However, these differences were not related to human activity recorded by the cameras, and none of the mammalian species exhibited significant differences in their diel activity patterns between the open and closed seasons, suggesting that nonlethal tourist activity has limited effects on the diel activity patterns of wild mammals in this National Park.

Population and habitat use of Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) and five ungulate species in Khao Ang Rue Nai Wildlife Sanctuary, Chachoengsao Province, Thailand

Abstract. Menkham K, Sukmasuang R, Pla-Ard M, Charaspet K, Panganta T, Trisurat Y, Bhumpakphan N. 2019. Population and habitat use of Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) and five ungulate species in Khao Ang Rue Nai Wildlife Sanctuary, Chachoengsao Province, Thailand. Biodiversitas 20: 2213-2221. This study on the Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) population, habitat use and the diel activity patterns of elephants and five species of large even-toed ungulates was conducted between March 2017 and March 2018 in Khao Ang Rue Nai Wildlife Sanctuary, Chachoengsao Province using intensive camera trapping. Fifty-eight camera traps were deployed, adding up to a total of 4,463 trap nights and revealing 1,760 independent encounters. Six species of mammals were recorded, including the Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) and five species of large even-toed ungulates; the gaur (Bos gaurus), the banteng (Bos javanicus), the sambar deer (Rusa unicolor), the wild boar (Sus scrofa), and the muntjac (Muntiacus muntjak). The abundance analysis reflected that the probability occupancy of the elephant was 0.92 (SE = 0.04); in dry seasons 0.97 (SE = 0.04) and in wet seasons 0.90 (SE = 0.83). The population of elephants within the study site of 87.95 km2 was within 79.51-334.15 individuals. The elephant age classes were identified as adult, sub-adult, juvenile, and calf with percentages of 77.85%, 5.71%, 9.28%, and 7.14%, respectively. The adult male to adult female sex-ratio was 1: 1.39 and the adult female per calf ratio was 1: 0.12. The percentage of the calf to adult female ratio was 9.17%. Maximum Entropy analysis revealed that saltlicks and artificial water sources were the environmental factors that had the most influence on the probability of occurrence of the elephant (all year). We found that the diel activity pattern of the elephants was strongly nocturnal (85% recorded between 18.00-05.59 hours). Temporal overlapping was seen between elephants and gaurs, bantengs and sambar deer in order. Suggestions for area management include improvement of water sources, salt licks, grassland management, and providing education, publicization, and strict control to decrease human activities within the protected area. There also should be continuous studies to monitor the population and the ecology of these species.

Feeding ecology of Late Pleistocene Muntiacus muntjak in the Padang Highlands (Sumatra)

The Dubois Collectie comprises around 1000 isolated fossil teeth of Muntiacus muntjak from the Padang Highlands in Sumatra. The majority were retrieved from one of the three fossil cave sites Lida Ajer, Sibrambang or Jambu. Lida Ajer is the only cave, for which exact location, geology as well as the age of the fossiliferous deposits are known. Using the mesowear method, we searched for differences in the dietary signal of Muntiacus muntjak and thus in the paleoenvironments of the three caves. Muntiacus muntjak from either one of the caves does not differ significantly in the composition of its diet, showing a mixed feeder signal. The samples of Lida Ajer and Sibrambang illustrate an increase of the mixed feeding component, which could be the result of higher seasonality.

Factors Associated with Habitat Segregation Among the Four Species of Cervids in the Chitwan National Park, Nepal

Abstract Study of habitat segregation among the four species of cervids was conducted in the Chitwan National park of lowland Nepal. This study aimed to investigate the possible mechanisms of habitat partitioning among the four cervids - chital, sambar deer, hog deer and northern red muntjac using discriminant analysis and canonical correlation analysis. Present study considered four major niche dimensions - habitat, human disturbance, presence of predators and seasons. The data were collected by walking along the line transects that encompasses the different habitats, varying degree of human disturbances and frequency of predator’s presence. Results showed the significant effect of season on the habitat segregation among these cervids. There was higher niche overlap during summer season as compared to winter season. Habitat overlap between chital and muntjac was higher and unstable than others, which showed that they were the competitors of the same resources as enlightened by their generalist nature. Therefore, maintaining habitat heterogeneity and minimizing human disturbances will be better solutions for the coexistence of herbivores in the Chitwan National Park and can be an example for similar areas of lowland Nepal.

Density and spatial partitioning of endangered sympatric Javan leopard (Felidae) and dholes (Canidae) in a tropical forest landscape

This study explores two large carnivores, Javan leopard (Panthera pardus melas) and dhole (Cuon alpinus) that are known to have an overlapping diet and are sympatric in the south-western part of West Java. We characterised their spatiotemporal habitat together with four medium-sized prey species. We used photographs collected along 39.420 night-traps from 108 camera-traps installed on the peninsula of Ujung Kulon National Park (UKNP). We are using maximum entropy modelling (MaxEnt) to investigate seasonal environmental factors. Concerning the dominant prey species, our results showed that distances to secondary forest edge were highly significant for both Javan leopard and dhole in wet and dry seasons. Javan leopard is mostly active at dawn and dusk, whereas spatially correlated with Javan mousedeer and red muntjac. Dhole exhibited diurnal activity and were avoiding Javan leopard to a certain extent. Its spatial use is overlapping with red muntjac, wild boar, and banteng. Using Spatially Explicit Capture-Recapture (SECR) methods, the density estimation for Javan leopard were 10.91 and 11.54 individuals/100 km2 in wet and dry seasons, respectively. We confirmed UKNP as one of Indonesia's biodiversity hotspots and a critical area to preserve Javan leopard and dholes.

Complete mitochondrial genome of northern Indian red muntjac (Muntiacus vaginalis) and its phylogenetic analysis.

We report complete mitochondrial genome of Northern Indian red muntjac, Muntiacus vaginalis, and its phylogenetic inferences. Mitogenome composition was 16,352bp in length and its overall base composition in the circular genome was A = 33.2%, T = 29.0%, C = 24.50% and G = 13.30%. It exhibited a typical mitogenome structure, including 22 transfer RNA genes, 13 protein-coding genes, two ribosomal RNA genes and a major non-coding control region (D-loop region). All the genes except ND6 and eight tRNA's were encoded on the heavy strand. Phylogenetic analyses showed that M. vaginalis is closely related to M. muntjak and formed a sister relationship with Elaphodus cephalophus. In view of the unclear distribution range and escalating habitat loss, it is important to identify its population genetic status. The complete mitogenome described in this study can be used in further phylogenetics, identification of extant maternal lineage, evolutionary significance unit and its genetic conservation.

The complete mitochondrial genome of Fea’s muntjac (Muntiacus feae Thomas and Doria, 1889) with phylogenetic analysis†

The complete mitochondrial genome (mitogenome) of the rare Fea’s muntjac (Muntiacus feae) was sequenced (GenBank accession nos. MG857662–MG857664). The mitogenome was found to be 16,355 bp in length with base compositions of 33.16% A, 24.59% C, 13.46% G, and 28.78% T and a GC content of 38.06%. The genome is comprised of 13 protein-coding genes (PCGs), 22 transfer RNA genes, 2 ribosomal RNA genes, and a control region (D-loop). Phylogenetic analysis revealed that Fea’s muntjac is more closely related to Black muntjac (M. cronifrons) than to Red muntjac (M. muntjak). These data will be useful for further studies on the genetic diversity and molecular phylogenetic relationship of the genus Muntiacus.

Characterization of Seminiferous Epithelium Stages in the Wild Javan Muntjac (Muntiacus muntjak muntjak) Using the Tubular Morphology Method.

Stages of the seminiferous epithelium of the testis of the wild Javan muntjac (Muntiacus muntjak muntjak) in hard antler period were characterized based on the tubular morphology method. The number and the relative frequencies of seminiferous epithelium stages and the morphometry of germinal cell nuclei were identified microscopically. We identified eight stages of seminiferous epithelium in testicular tissue of the Javan muntjac and found that the relative frequencies of stages I to VIII were 14.87, 15.12, 17.75, 6.87, 7.37, 12.37, 13, and 12.62%, respectively. The diameter of the nuclei of germinal cells varied in each stage of seminiferous epithelium. Diplotene-stage primary spermatocytes had prominent and large nuclei ~8.97 ± 1.0 μm in stages III and IV. Pachytene primary spermatocytes appeared in most stages, except stage IV, whereas leptotene- and diplotene-stage primary spermatocytes were found in stages I and II, and III and IV, respectively. Round spermatids were observed in stages IV to VIII and in stage I but were absent in stages II and III, while elongated spermatids were observed in all stages except stage I. Our findings show that the stages of seminiferous epithelium in the Javan muntjac are similar to those found in neotropical cervids, small ruminants, and other domestic animals.

Chromosome Segregation: The Bigger They Come, the Harder They Fall

Aneuploidy is frequently found to affect individual chromosomes differentially, but it is unclear whether this depends on inter-chromosome differences in missegregation rates. A new study presents evidence that, in the Indian muntjac, centromere-kinetochore size influences the rate at which chromosomes missegregate.

Tooth remains of Late Pleistocene moschid and cervid (Artiodactyla, Mammalia) from Yangjiawan and Fuyan Caves of southern China

In southern China, the Ailuropoda-Stegodon fauna is a very general one with a relatively stable Ailuropoda and Stegodon fossil assemblage throughout the Pleistocene epoch, and cervid remains are also significant elements of this fauna. The taxonomic study on isolated cervid tooth fossils of the Late Pleistocene Ailuropoda-Stegodon fauna is not very adequate. The numerous cervid tooth fossils recently unearthed from Yangjiawan caves and Fuyan Cave give us a possibility to address this issue. Based on morphologic, odontometric and CT scanning studies, six moschid and cervid species have been recognized, including Moschus sp., Elaphodus cephalophus, Muntiacus muntjak, M. reevesi, Rusa unicolor and Cervus nippon. The cervid faunal compositions of these two sites are basically the same, and most of the species can be distinguished from one another in tooth dimensions, except for M. muntjak and E. cephalophus; but the entoflexus of upper premolars, the metacone ribs of upper molars, the structure of p4, and the metastylid of lower molars can be used as distinguishable characters between M. muntjak and E. cephalophus. The cingulum and the entostyle of upper molars, and the metastylid of lower molars of M. reevesi are weaker than those of M. muntjak. R. unicolor possesses tapered entostyle and thick enamel, while the enamel of C. nippon is relatively thinner and the entostyle is columned. Moschus sp. usually has a Dorcatherium fold in lower molars, which is a diagnostic character for Moschus species.

Chromosome Segregation Is Biased by Kinetochore Size

SummaryChromosome missegregation during mitosis or meiosis is a hallmark of cancer and the main cause of prenatal death in humans. The gain or loss of specific chromosomes is thought to be random, with cell viability being essentially determined by selection. Several established pathways including centrosome amplification, sister-chromatid cohesion defects, or a compromised spindle assembly checkpoint can lead to chromosome missegregation. However, how specific intrinsic features of the kinetochore—the critical chromosomal interface with spindle microtubules—impact chromosome segregation remains poorly understood. Here we used the unique cytological attributes of female Indian muntjac, the mammal with the lowest known chromosome number (2n = 6), to characterize and track individual chromosomes with distinct kinetochore size throughout mitosis. We show that centromere and kinetochore functional layers scale proportionally with centromere size. Measurement of intra-kinetochore distances, serial-section electron microscopy, and RNAi against key kinetochore proteins confirmed a standard structural and functional organization of the Indian muntjac kinetochores and revealed that microtubule binding capacity scales with kinetochore size. Surprisingly, we found that chromosome segregation in this species is not random. Chromosomes with larger kinetochores bi-oriented more efficiently and showed a 2-fold bias to congress to the equator in a motor-independent manner. Despite robust correction mechanisms during unperturbed mitosis, chromosomes with larger kinetochores were also strongly biased to establish erroneous merotelic attachments and missegregate during anaphase. This bias was impervious to the experimental attenuation of polar ejection forces on chromosome arms by RNAi against the chromokinesin Kif4a. Thus, kinetochore size is an important determinant of chromosome segregation fidelity.

Factors Affecting Population Composition and Social Organization of Wild Ungulates in the Chitwan National Park, Nepal

We investigated the factors affecting group sizes and population composition of chital (Axis axis), sambar (Rusa unicolor), hog deer (Axis porcinus), northern red muntjac (Muntiacus vaginalis), wild boar (Sus scrofa) and gaur (Bos gaurus) in the Chitwan National Park in southern Nepal. The study revealed that mean group sizes were the largest for chital (winter: 13.76 and summer: 11.01), followed by wild boar (winter: 6.89 and summer: 8.51), hog deer (winter: 5.52 and summer: 6.66), gaur (winter: 4.36 and summer: 5.81), sambar (winter: 1.86 and summer: 2.45) and muntjac (winter: 1.44 and summer: 1.46). The age and sex ratio of ungulates were biased towards females in all species. This study found the highest proportion of young individuals in wild boar and the lowest in gaur. Habitat structure, presence of predators and human disturbances strongly affected group size of ungulates in this area. Larger groups of ungulates were found in less disturbed open areas with high predatory pressure, while smaller groups and solitary individuals were found in highly disturbed forest areas. We recommend that management of human disturbances inside the park and regular monitoring of the changes in the demography of ungulate populations will improve long-term conservation strategies in this park. Journal of Institute of Science and TechnologyVolume 22, Issue 2, January 2018, Page: 156-167

Morphological identification of pectoral limb bones of Indian Muntjac (Muntiacus muntjak) from domestic ruminants

Indian Muntjac is a short deer variety of Nilgiri-Wayand biosphere. Salient distinguishing features for morphological identification of bones of different species in vetero-legal cases is very important. Morphology of pectoral limb bones from adult Indian Muntjac (n=3), goat (n=6), sheep (n=3) and cross bred cattle (n=6) were carried out. Scapula presented a cranially-placed spine, prominent supraglenoid tubercle and extensive subscapular fossa in Indian Muntjac. Breadth to length ratio of scapula in Indian Muntjac is 0.56:1 whereas in small ruminants the values ranged from 0.41:1 to 0.44:1. Width ratio of supraspinatous to infraspinatous fossae ratio in Indian Muntjac, goat, sheep and cross bred cattle were1:4.1, 1:2.8, 1:2.9 and 1:2.5 respectively. Angle created by acromian, junction of caudal end of scapular spine to lateral surface of scapula and long axis of scapula passing through spine was a major criterion of distinction and this angle in Indian Muntjac, goat, sheep and cross bred cattle were 520, 1400, 1300 and 1100 respectively. Though crest of the humerus was ill-defined, deltoid tuberosity was prominent in Indian Muntjac. Blunt summit of cranial part of lateral tuberosity of humerus projected above head and markedly curved over the intertuberal groove. Radial tuberosity was more distinct in cattle and sheep than in Indian Muntjac and goat. The grooves for extensor tendons on distal extremity of radius were well profiled in Indian Muntjac compared to cattle, goat and sheep. Olecranon of ulna was grooved in Indian Muntjac which was lacking in other animals. Distinct dorsal longitudinal groove on entire shaft and prominent medial and lateral borders were characteristic features in Indian Muntjac. Small metacarpal bone of Indian Muntjac and sheep had the form of a very thin rod. The morphological features revealed more resemblance to that of goat, sheep and spotted deer.

<b>Observations of occurrence and daily activity patterns of ungulates in the Endau Rompin Landscape, peninsular Malaysia</b>

Camera trap data was used to study occurrence and daily activity patterns in the Endau Rompin Landscape of peninsular Malaysia during 2011, 2013 and 2015 to estimate Malayan Tiger Panthera tigris jacksoni population densities. By-catch data were also collected for seven ungulate species: Barking Deer Muntiacus muntjak, Bearded Pig Sus barbatus, Wild Boar Sus scrofa, Greater Mousedeer Tragulus napu, Lesser Mousedeer Tragulus kanchil, Malayan Tapir Tapirus indicus and Sambar Deer Rusa unicolor. Of these, Bayesian single-season occupancy analysis suggested that Barking Deer were the most widespread and Mousedeer spp. the least widespread during the study period. Bearded Pig, Malayan Tapir and Wild Boar were recorded in more than half of the camera trap area (Sambar Deer was excluded due to small sample size). Daily activity patterns based on independent captures in 2015 suggest that Barking Deer, Bearded Pig and Wild Boar are mostly diurnal, mousedeer species are crepuscular and Malayan Tapir strongly nocturnal.

Seasonal food habits of the endangered Indochinese leopardPanthera pardus delacouriin a protected area of North West Thailand

The Indochinese leopard Panthera pardus delacouri has experienced a sharp decline in numbers and distribution, especially in Thailand. We have analyzed its diet in Om Koi Wildlife Sanctuary of North West Thailand, where only wild prey species were present. Scats were collected during the dry-hot and the dry-cold seasons. The Indian muntjac appeared to be the staple of the leopard's diet, particularly in the dry-cold season, and consumed equally with the Indian wild boar in the dry-hot one. The occurrence of the Indochinese hog deer in the diet of the leopard in Om Koi represents the first detection record of this endangered species in North West Thailand, after being long extirpated. During the dry-hot season, poachers slashed and burnt portions of forest to flush game and to provide space for poppy fields. Muntjacs are sensitive to both forest fires and poaching, whereas Indian wild boar are resilient to disturbance, which may explain their alternation in diet.