Municipal Refuse Research Articles

Optimal Total Planning for Incinerator Plants in an Urban Area

SUMMARYThis paper proposes optimal total planning for incinerator plants (IPs) in a typical urban area, which includes a method of determining the number of plants and the capacities of the IPs. Burnable municipal refuse is disposed of sanitarily by high‐temperature incineration at the IPs. At the same time, power generation from waste (PGW) is being performed at many IPs to recover energy. At present, the amount of energy generated by PGW is greater than that of wind power or photovoltaic power generation. However, PGW has a limited generation efficiency and low generation output due to the smaller capacity of IPs. To overcome the above weakness, highly efficient PGW is necessary with total integration and scaling up of IPs. Regarding total integration and scaling up, operation in larger areas is favorable from the point of view of refuse volume and collection. In the planning stage, both the cost of IPs and refuse collection, which is important for refuse disposal, should be taken into account comprehensively. Optimal total planing for IPs can be performed in two stages. First, the disposal capacity Gk of an IP versus the number of plants K is decided by constraints. Gk is about the same for all K because of maintenance and refuse collection, and is greater than 300 tons per day in steps of 100 tons per day. Gk should be decided not only by refuse volume but also by cessation of operation at plants due to maintenance or faults. Second, the cost of each value of K is calculated based on the construction and operating costs of the IPs, income from selling the energy of PGW, and refuse collection costs. Therefore, the value of K with the minimum cost is selected as the optimal number of IPs. A numerical simulation of an area with a population of 3 million indicates that the optimal plant number is 4. At present there are eight or nine IPs in cities of 3 million people. The above cost reduction effect will be about 15% from the present value. Considering the situation of aging IPs, a decreasing trend in refuse volume, and the stringent financial conditions of local governments, the proposed method is very effective and realistic.

Environmental Pollution in China’s Urbanization Process and its Enlightenments

In recent years the haze weather indicates that China has faced serious environmental problems. In China, natural resources are relative scarce. After the reform and opening-up policies, China’s urbanization rate increased rapidly, but at the expense of the environment. Industrial pollution, municipal refuse, the pollution of cultivated land and food security, urban diseases emerge especially in China’s big cities. To coordinate the relationship between urbanization and the environment, the future should focus on investment in science and Technology and carry out reasonable city planning and layout in the progress of urbanization.

Environmental Impact Assessment and End-of-Life Treatment Policy Analysis for Li-Ion Batteries and Ni-MH Batteries

Based on Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) and Eco-indicator 99 method, a LCA model was applied to conduct environmental impact and end-of-life treatment policy analysis for secondary batteries. This model evaluated the cycle, recycle and waste treatment stages of secondary batteries. Nickel-Metal Hydride (Ni-MH) batteries and Lithium ion (Li-ion) batteries were chosen as the typical secondary batteries in this study. Through this research, the following results were found: (1) A basic number of cycles should be defined. A minimum cycle number of 200 would result in an obvious decline of environmental loads for both battery types. Batteries with high energy density and long life expectancy have small environmental loads. Products and technology that help increase energy density and life expectancy should be encouraged. (2) Secondary batteries should be sorted out from municipal garbage. Meanwhile, different types of discarded batteries should be treated separately under policies and regulations. (3) The incineration rate has obvious impact on the Eco-indicator points of Nickel-Metal Hydride (Ni-MH) batteries. The influence of recycle rate on Lithium ion (Li-ion) batteries is more obvious. These findings indicate that recycling is the most promising direction for reducing secondary batteries’ environmental loads. The model proposed here can be used to evaluate environmental loads of other secondary batteries and it can be useful for proposing policies and countermeasures to reduce the environmental impact of secondary batteries.

Assessment of plastic packaging waste: Material origin, methods, properties

The global plastics production has increased annually and a substantial part is used for packaging (in Europe 39%). Most plastic packages are discarded after a relatively short service life and the resulting plastic packaging waste is subsequently landfilled, incinerated or recycled. Laws of several European and Asian countries require that plastic packaging waste collected from households has to be sorted, reprocessed, compounded and reused. These recycling schemes typically produce milled goods of poly(ethylene terephthalate) (PET), poly(ethylene) (PE), isotactic poly(propylene) (PP), mixed plastics, and agglomerates from film material. The present study documents the composition and properties of post-consumer polyolefin recyclates originating from both source separation and mechanical recovery from municipal solid refuse waste (MSRW). The overall composition by Fourier transform-infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) were determined and compared with the sorting results of the sorted fractions prior to the reprocessing into milled goods. This study shows that the collection method for the plastic packaging waste has hardly any influence on the final quality of the recyclate; however, the sorting and reprocessing steps influence the final quality of the recyclate. Although the mechanical properties of recyclate are clearly different than those of virgin polymers, changes to the sorting and reprocessing steps can improve the quality.

An Outbreak of Sodium Fluoroacetate (1080) Intoxication in Selenium- and Copper-Deficient Sheep in California

Sodium fluoroacetate is an organofluorine compound toxic to mammals, insects, and birds, currently registered for use only in livestock protection collars as a predacide in some North American states, with restricted use in California. A flock of 445 lambs and ewes in California were moved into a native pasture on a municipal refuse disposal site. Within 24 hours, 14 ewes were found dead, and the remaining sheep were moved off the site. Both ewes and lambs exhibited disoriented running, followed by apparent blindness, weakness, ataxia, coma, and death. Over the next 4 days, 63 ewes and 80 lambs died with a peak at 3 days after grazing the suspect pasture (157/445, 35% mortality). Two dead 4-month-old lambs and 2 ewes were submitted to the California Animal Health and Food Safety laboratory for necropsy. Grossly, there were bilateral diffuse pulmonary congestion and edema, hydrothorax and hydropericardium with fibrin clots, and multifocally extensive areas of epicardial petechiae, ecchymoses, and pallor. In 1 ewe, there was regional caudodorsal pulmonary hemorrhage and intraluminal tracheal clotted blood. Microscopically in all cases, there was multifocal acute myocardial degeneration and necrosis with nonsuppurative pleocellular myocarditis. Sodium fluoroacetate was detected in kidney from a lamb and a ewe at 27.5 and 12.5 parts per billion, respectively. All sheep were selenium deficient, and concurrent copper deficiency was diagnosed in 3. The pathological and toxicological findings were consistent with 1080 poisoning, possibly exacerbated by micronutrient deficiency. This outbreak raised an alert about the use of restricted products with potential lethal effect in animals in California.

Distribution and temporal trend of polybrominated diphenyl ethers in one Shanghai municipal landfill, China

The scarcity of information on polybrominated diphenyl ethers' (PBDEs) flow in landfill restricts the life cycle analysis of PBDEs. In this study, eight PBDE congeners (BDEs 28, 47, 99, 100, 153, 154, 183, and 209) in topsoil, vegetation leaves, leachate, and municipal aged refuse collected from Shanghai Laogang Municipal Landfill (SLML) were investigated. The present study revealed elevated PBDE concentrations in topsoil and proved PBDE leakage from SLML and vegetation uptake. BDE-209 was the predominant congener, and this could be due to massive usage of deca-BDE mixture in Shanghai. ΣPBDE concentrations in leachates treated by reed wetland and A(2)/O process fell in the low end of the worldwide range. ΣPBDE concentrations in aged refuse samples rose from under 50 ng/g dw in 1989 to the range of 5,150-5,718 ng/g dw in 2002. PBDE concentrations increase in aged refuse samples throughout the 1990s into the 2000s paralleled municipal solid waste output from 1991 to 2002 in Shanghai. Exponential increase in BDE-209 concentration in aged refuse suggested the increasing market demands for deca-BDE mixture after 1990 in China. Notably, the inventory of PBDEs in SLML was 28.7 MT, and the doubling time of BDE-209 in aged refuse was calculated to be 1.6 year. SLML can be considered as a source of PBDE and one main recipient of PBDE as well, receiving inputs predominantly from the PBDE-containing waste. Priority should be given to formulate regulation on PBDEs and sorting work before landfill disposal.

Effect of Organic Materials With and Without Mineral Fertilizer on Grain Yield and Nutrient Contents of Pearl Millet (<i>Pennisetum glaucum</i>) in ohe Sudano-Sahelian Ecological Zone of Nigeria.

The inherently low fertility of most of the soils of savanna regions particularly in North-east Nigeria is a factor limiting the development of sustainable agricultural systems. Consequently, maintenance of soil fertility and management of soil for sustained and continuous crop production are essential components of the overall management of the soil. The primary objective of the study was to investigate the effect of these soil amendment materials on the yield and nutrient contents of Millet grain grown in the study area. Field experiment involving the application of three different types of organic materials; compost, farm yard manure (FYM) and municipal refuse (MR) applied at 7.5 t/ha alone and in combination with half (30:15:15) the recommended rate of NPK and full (60:30:30) recommended rate of NPK fertilizer was conducted. The trial therefore consist of nine treatments, replicated three times and laid out in a randomized complete block design (RCBD), carried out at the Teaching and Research Farms, University of Maiduguri, North-east Nigeria. Application of FYM + ½ (30:15:15) NPK, and compost + ½ NPK increased the yield of millet (3050 and 1609 kg ha-1) respectively over the control treatment (790 kg ha-1), and resulted in improved physical and chemical properties of the soil than the use of organic materials or inorganic fertilizer alone. Although differences in nutrient content of grain were not significantly affected by the treatments, application of FYM alone gave higher N (14.70 g kg-1) and P (12.00 g kg-1) contents over the remainingtreatments, which were found to correlate significantly with N and P uptake by the millet crop at tillering and booting stages. Calcium and Mg were higher (14.00 g kg-1 and 12.14 g kg-1) in treatments with MR when applied with ½ NPK than other treatments. It was evident that the use of organic materials in combination with inorganic fertilizer increased grain yield of millet nutrient content in addition to the reduction of organic wastes. Farmers in the region are advised to prepare good quality compost using farm weeds and leguminous residues before the onset of the rainy season to realize the yield potential of millet on the soils of the study area that are inherently low in fertility status.Key words: Compost, Farm Yard Manure, Municipal refuse, Mineral fertilizer.

Distribution profile, health risk and elimination of model atmospheric SVOCs associated with a typical municipal garbage compressing station in Guangzhou, South China

Semi-volatile organic compounds (SVOCs) air pollution caused by municipal garbage compressing process was investigated at a garbage compressing station (GCS). The most abundant contaminants were phthalate esters (PAEs), followed by polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and organic chlorinated pesticides (OCPs). ∑16PAHs concentrations ranged from 58.773 to 68.840 ng m−3 in gas and from 6.489 to 17.291 ng m−3 in particulate phase; ∑20OCPs ranged from 4.181 to 5.550 ng m−3 and from 0.823 to 2.443 ng m−3 in gas and particulate phase, respectively; ∑15PAEs ranged from 46.498 to 87.928 ng m−3 and from 414.765 to 763.009 ng m−3 in gas and particulate phase. Lung-cancer risk due to PAHs exposure was 1.13 × 10−4. Both non-cancer and cancer risk levels due to OCPs exposure were acceptable. Non-cancer hazard index of PAEs was 4.57 × 10−3, suggesting safety of workers as only exposure to PAEs at GCS. At pilot scale, 60.18% of PAHs, 70.89% of OCPs and 63.2% of PAEs were removed by an integrated biotrickling filter-photocatalytic reactor at their stable state, and health risk levels were reduced about 50%, demonstrating high removal capacity of integrated reactor.

Antibiogram Status of Bacterial Isolates from Air Around Dumpsite of Ekiti State Destitute Centre at Ilokun, Ado-Ekiti, Nigeria

An investigation of the bacteriological quality of air around a municipal refuse dump in Ado-Ekiti, Nigeria was conducted to assess the bacteriological contamination of air and also to assess the ambient air quality of the closest neighbourhood to the dump site. The microbial concentration of air around the dump site was measured using the passive method that involved exposing sterile Petri dishes containing nutrient agar to the air for about five minutes. The exposures were carried out on separate days at some locations close to the dump site viz; the dumpsite, about 50m away from the dumpsite, and at the nearest neighbourhood which is about 100m away from the dumpsite. The microbes at the neighbour- hood with mean value of 137.4 CFU/p was in most cases higher than the microbes at the dumpsite with mean value of 124.4 CFU/p. The bacterial distribution in the air revealed, 37% of Escherichia coli, 19% of Klebsiella spp, 13% of Pseudomonas spp, 15% of Serratia spp, 8% of Staphylococcus spp, 7% of Enterococcus spp and only 1% of Salmonella sp. The pattern of resistance of the bacterial isolates were Ceftazidime (87.7%), Cefuroxime (82.2%), Gentamicin (89.0%), Cefotaxime (84.9%), Ofloxacin (90.4%), Amoxicillin (95.9%), Augmetin (93.2%), Nitrofurantoin (93.2%) for the Gram negative bac- teria, while, the percentage of resistant Gram positive isolates is as follows: Tetracycline (84.6%), Sulfamethoxazone (61.5%), Erythromycin (84.6%), Fusidic acid (69.2%), Gentamicin (61.5%), Clindamycin (30.8%), Penicillin (100%) and Trimethropin (92.3%). This research work revealed the relevance of an Environmental Microbiology Department in any Governmental Waste Management System and the potential hazard of the open dump system of waste disposal around residential area.

Assessment of Environmental Health Children’s Population Living in Environmental Injustice Scenarios

We conducted a cross sectional study, involving 145 children randomly selected from three different socioeconomic locations. We selected social, environment and health indicators and measured the prevalence and prevalence odds ratios. Children from the brick producing site (segregation index 5), are exposed to high levels of multiple toxic agents, and showed the highest morbidity rates and malnutrition, anemia, dental fluorosis, and the lowest IQ, followed by children from municipal garbage dump (segregation index 4), where we detected the highest prevalence of dermatological and enteric diseases. Children from the Central Zone (segregation index 2) showed the lowest rates of malnutrition and higher IQ than the other two groups. A unified vision of social, health and environmental indicators opens the possibility of novel intervention programs and a legal framework that specifically protect children against environmental exposures.

Isotherms and kinetics studies of biosorption nickel (II) and chromium (VI) from aqueous solution by dried activated sludge

Aims: The aim of this study is the recovery of municipal refuse and using it as a biosorbent for Nickel (II) and Chromium (VI) (Ni 2+ an d Cr 6+ )removal from aqueous solutions. Materials and Methods: Activated sludge was obtained from the wastewater treatment plant in a dairy industry. All experiments were performed in the batch system and effective parameters such as the pH, adsorbent dosage, and the initial concentration and contact time of Ni 2+ and Cr 6+ were investigated. The adsorption isotherms and kinetics were evaluated to describe the metal uptake and dynamic reactions. Results: The results of this study showed that with an increasing adsorbent dose and contact time, Ni 2+ and Cr 6+ removal efficiency increased. The maximum adsorption of Ni 2+ and Cr 6+ was obtained in pH 6 and 2, respectively. Meanwhile, with increasing Ni 2+ and Cr 6+ concentration, the removal efficiency decreased. The results best fitted the Langmuir isotherm and the maximum absorption capacity of Ni 2+ and Cr 6+ onto dry activated sludge (DAS) were 2.17 and 2.23 mg/g, respectively. Analysis of the adsorption kinetics showed that the intraparticle diffusion kinetic had been good and presented Ni 2+ and Cr 6+ uptake onto DAS, and the intraparticle diffusion rate constant of Ni 2+ and Cr 6+ were 0.044 and 0.042 (mg/g min 0.5 ), respectively. Conclusions: According to the results, dry activated sludge is suggested as a low cost and available adsorbent for removing Ni 2+ and Cr 6+ from aqueous solutions.

Assessment of heavy metals (lead and cadmium) concentration in Paspalum orbiculare near municipal refuse dumpsites in Lagos State, Nigeria

Lead and cadmium concentrations in Paspalum orbiculare from four different dumpsites and a control site were determined in this study. The Plant samples were analyzed for lead and cadmium concentrations using a flame atomic absorption spectrophotometer (FAAS) Perkins Elmer Model 500. The presence of lead in the plant tissues obtained form the study site where burning was attributed to the high degree of correlation between foliar concentration and burning of refuse. High concentration of heavy metals can be a source of health risk to living organisms including humans in the environment. More needs to be done in the way we dispose our solid wastes to reduce environmental pollution. Key words: Pollution, heavy metals, incineration, dumpsites.

Effect of Furnace Temperature on Emission of Nitrous Oxide from Municipal Refuse Incinerators

Effect of Furnace Temperature on Emission of Nitrous Oxide from Municipal Refuse Incinerators

Oxidation Characteristics of NO and SO2 in Exhaust Gas from Municipal Refuse Incinerator by Pulse Corona Discharge

Oxidation Characteristics of NO and SO2 in Exhaust Gas from Municipal Refuse Incinerator by Pulse Corona Discharge

The peculiarities of the helminth fauna of herring gulls of the synanthropic Murmansk population

The feeding resources of seabirds have been con� siderably damaged in the Barents Sea region in the second half of the 20th century, which mainly resulted from largescale commercial fishery. A pronounced tendency towards synanthropy of some seabird spe� cies, mainly the herring gull (Larus argentatus), is one of the most important and obvious consequences of this process. Herring gulls especially intensely spread to anthropogenic landscapes of the Kola Peninsula in the late 1970s and early 1980s, when the birds began to use food waste cans, municipal garbage dumps, and wastes from fur farms as feeding stations (1-3). Until the late 1990s, gulls only scavenged for food in urban areas; then, they began nesting and raising their nest� lings on the roofs of town buildings, including those within the city limits of Murmansk (4). The reproduc� tion efficiency was very high there, as evidenced by large sizes of the clutches and a low mortality of the nestlings (4, 5). Such considerable changes in the bird ecology and behavior could not but affect the compo� sition of their helminth fauna. However, there have been few, if any, reliable data on the parasites of the seabirds that have moved from their traditional habi� tats to urban landscapes. Parasitological examination of herring gulls from the synanthropic Murmansk population was carried out in the Laboratory of Ornithology and Parasitology of the Murmansk Marine Biological Institute of the Kola Scientific Center of the Russian Academy of Sci� ences in 2009-2010. The purpose of this study were to determine the species composition of the helminthic fauna of the gulls, compare the results with the data on the helminth infestation of birds from natural popula� tions of the Murmansk coast, and evaluate the anthro� pogenic effect on the pattern of helminth invasion in herring gulls. We used the material from 13 birds that were found dead (usually, after collisions with motor vehicles) on the streets of Murmansk. Helminthes obtained from the intestine and other organs of the birds were fixed using the standard method (trematodes and cestodes, in 70% ethanol; nematodes, in a warm 4% formalin solution in seawater). We made whole mounts out of the fixed trematodes and cestodes stained by mucicar� mine; these specimens were used for species identifi� cation of the parasites. To identify the species of nem� atodes, we preliminarily clarified the specimens with 10% glycerol. Quantitative parameters of the infesta� tion of gulls by different species of parasites, namely the prevalence and intensity of invasion (P and II, respectively) and the mean abundance (MA), were determined from the result of parasitological dissec� tions. For comparative analysis, we used the data on the parasitic fauna of herring gulls from the Seven Islands Archipelago obtained in 1993-2001 (6). The statistical treatment of the results included the estima� tion of the boundaries of the confidence intervals for P at the 5% significance level and the calculation of Jac� quard's and Sorensen's coefficients.

Biomedical dental waste management and awareness of waste management policy among private dental practitioners in Mangalore city, India

Aim: To assess (1) Awareness towards waste management policy and practices. (2) Approach towards waste management policy and practices. (3) Performance in waste management policy and practices among the private dental practitioners in the city of Mangalore, India. Study Design: A cross sectional study. Study subjects and methods: Ninety six private dental practitioners of Mangalore city responded to the self administered questionnaire on biomedical dental waste disposal. Questionnaire contained seventeen closed end type of questions. The questionnaire was designed in an appropriate way such that the objectives of the study were met. Data was analyzed using SPSS version 15. Results: A survey was conducted among 109 private dental practitioners in the city of Mangalore with a self administered questionnaire out of which 96 responded (88.07%). Overall 97.9% of the practitioners were aware of the waste management policy, 47.9 % were handing over the waste to municipal garbage collectors, 54.2% felt that there was a lack of awareness regarding the existing health care waste management services within the city, 44.8% contacted the certified waste carrier services, 42.7% discarded blood soaked swabs and gauze in specific colour coded plastics during disposal. Conclusion: From the study it was found that a large number of practitioners are aware of the legislation policy but have failed to contact and register their clinic under certified waste management services of the city. Lack of professional training has been a major cause for the same. Hence there is a need to educate the dental practitioners regarding proper practice measures.Key words: Bio medical waste, private dental practitioners, Dental office waste, self administered questionnaire.

LANDFILL GAS FOR ENERGY: ITS STATUS AND PROSPECT IN INDONESIA

Indonesia, a nation with more than 230 million population, is the world’s largest archipelagic state located between Asia and Australia continents. In 2000, the production of municipal solid waste (MSW) or refuse in 384 Indonesian cities was about 80,235 tons or 320,940 m3 per day. Refuse generation is predicted to increase five times by 2020. Waste composition is influenced by external factors, such as geographical location, the population’s standard of living, energy source, and weather. Generally, ahigh percentage of organic matter of refuse is between 61 and 72 per cent by weight. The presence of paper, plastic, glass, and metal ranges from 0.4 to 13 per cent. The current handling of refuse in Indonesia is mostly used the disposal land of unhealthy landfill in the form of open dumping. Around 450 units of open dumping have been in operation in Indonesian big cities. These open dumping landfills cause some problems ranging from odor to health problems. Center of Environmental Technology, BPPT has been preparing to carry out landfill mining both for its compost and gas. The gassampling must be done first before it is pumped for energy use. The gas is suggested to be utilized for generating energy, for example for electricity. Initial test indicated that the composition of methane gas (CH4) is around 50%, which is a good enough for energy generation. If the percentage of burnable gas is too low to be used for generating electric energy, it might be mixed with high content of heating value of natural gas (dual fuel system). This paper will present the conditions of open dumping of landfill inIndonesia, and the status and the distribution of its containing gas. From this knowledge of the amount and distribution of landfill gas, it will be analyzed for suggestion how the mined gas will be suitably utilized by the people.

Os significados do lixo para garis e catadores de Fortaleza (CE, Brasil)

This study sought to elicit a discussion about the significance of garbage from the standpoint of a group of municipal garbage collectors and garbage recyclers resident in Fortaleza, State of Ceará. Using qualitative methodology and the individual interview technique, this work presents the results of ongoing research that has been conducted together with the employees involved in the collection of household garbage in Fortaleza, State of Ceará, and those working in a plant for separating recyclable materials. During the period under analysis of the "world of garbage" eight interviews were staged. After transcription and interpretation of the interviews, it became clear that the respondents perceive garbage as being prejudicial to health (due to the various diseases it causes) and also as a means of survival (as a result of non-inclusion in the labor market due to lack of study and/or opportunity).

Analyzing nutrient distribution in different particle-size municipal aged refuse

To investigate the feasibility of using aged municipal solid waste as farmland soil, it is essential to study its nutritive compositions for plant growth. Previous studies have demonstrated that the properties of different particle-size aged refuse are very different, therefore, the present study was conducted to evaluate the adequacy of three elements (N, P, K) and the fractionation of inorganic P in the aged refuse with a particle-size distribution of 900 to 300, 300 to 150, 150 to 105, 105 to 90 and 90 to 0 μm. The results indicate that (1) total quantities of N, P, K were much larger than that in the general soil and the quantities of available N, P and K were also adequate; (2) total content of P was sufficient, but the ratio of available-P to total P was not high enough; (3) with the decrease of particle size, the contents of these elements presented different trends. The results implicate that total contents of N, P and K were enough for the aged refuse being exploited as cultivated soil, and different gradation of aged refuse could be added to improve poor soils. It provides scientific evidence for utilizing different particle-size aged refuse comprehensively.

Comparative Studies on the Acute Toxicities of Whole Solids and Solids Aqueous Extracts Based on the Inhibition of Bacterial Bioluminescence Production

The aim of this investigation was to demonstrate a rapid bioluminescence bioassay for comparison of the toxicity of whole solids and the aqueous extracts of various environmental solid samples. With regard to the toxicities, those for the soil extracts were mostly found to be lower than those of whole soils, which may have been caused by un-extracted pollutants or dilution during the extraction process. Solid samples from dam-reservoir sediments and municipal refuses were also tested. The toxicities of the solid extracts (0-34%; refuses and sediments) were much lower than those of the whole solids (13-91%). The bioluminescence inhibition test indicated that the harmful effects of the contaminated solids samples were greater than those of the solid extracts.