Municipal Police Officers Research Articles

이원화 자치경찰제 추진을 위한 선결 과제

The autonomous police system is based on the premise that the quality of life of the residents can be improved by the police system for the residents, by the residents, and for the residents. Fundamental questions have been raised as to whether Korea's autonomous police system is being operated for the residents, but on the other hand, the current autonomous police system has been implemented after discussion and review of the autonomous police system for a considerable period of time. The autonomous police system is a system that pursues values contrary to the national police system, placing importance on democracy and procedurality rather than efficiency. The autonomous police system is an essential element in the decision-making process of residents aiming for grassroots democracy, and Korea's autonomous police system does not utilize the purpose of the autonomous police system in that it is implemented by determining the model and operation method centrally. In order to operate the autonomous police system, a blueprint to transfer much of the police power to local governments should have been presented, but due to the inefficiency of decentralized systems, confrontation between the two Koreas, and familiarity with the implementation of the national police system, a centralized national police system was maintained, and a formal police organization with limited responsibilities and authority was established in local governments and only some police duties closely related to residents' lives was carried out as an office manager. Despite various problems, the autonomous police system has become an irreversible trend of the times, and although it is insufficient, discussions continue as it contributes to improving the quality of life of residents by improving the problems. The Yoon Suk Yeol government, which was launched in May 2022, launched the “Police System Development Committee” under the Prime Minister in September of the same year and said that it would pilot the dual autonomous police system in Jeju, Sejong, Gangwon and Jeonbuk, but discussions were underway until February 2023 and have been suspended. Given that time is needed to overhaul legislation, implement new models, and improve complementary points, it is not easy to keep its pledge to fully implement the dual autonomous police system by 2026. There are both negative criticisms of the autonomous police system, which has been implemented from 2021 to 2024, as well as positive evaluations of the process of developing the autonomous police system as a transitional period. It is difficult to say that the “double-level” model, in which autonomous police organizations are operated separately from national police, immediately carries out practical autonomous police administration, but it can take on the shape of an autonomous police rather than a unified model. A form of incorporating the national police system centered on the autonomous police system was considered a hard landing plan, and a form of incorporating the autonomous police system centered on the national police system was suggested as a soft landing plan. As a hard landing plan, the full transfer of national police authority to local governments and the introduction of an election system for the chairman of the municipal and provincial autonomous police committees or police officers were proposed. As a soft landing plan, a bill should be enacted or revised to allow the dualization model to operate more efficiently, which should include organizational and operational aspects. The main contents will require the transfer of organization, manpower, and budget to local governments, and accordingly, organizations that can perform autonomous police affairs, such as the autonomous police committee and the autonomous police headquarters, should be reorganized.

Peraturan Daerah Nomor 16 Tahun 2014 tentang Penataan dan Pemberdayaan Pedagang Kaki Lima pada Penegakan Hukum dan Sanksi serta Kendala di Kabupaten Grobogan

This study discusses the Implementation of Local Regulation Number 16 of 2014 regarding the Regulation and Empowerment of Street Vendors in Grobogan Regency. It is triggered by the rapid economic development in the region, which has resulted in a significant increase in the participation of street vendors in economic development efforts through street vending activities, which are increasingly popular among the people of Grobogan Regency. The study examines how the law enforcement is carried out on Local Regulation Number 16 of 2014 concerning the regulation and empowerment of street vendors in Grobogan Regency. Additionally, the research also highlights the sanctions imposed when street vendors violate these local regulations, and identifies the challenges faced by the Municipal Police officers in carrying out their duties to regulate street vendors. The research applies a normative juridical approach in its methodology with a descriptive analysis specification. Despite some challenges faced by the officers in the field, the law enforcement of Local Regulation Number 16 of 2014 regarding the Regulation and Empowerment of Street Vendors in Grobogan Regency continues to proceed in an orderly manner and can be overcome by field officers.

Psychosocial risks and their consequences on health and job satisfaction among Spanish police officers.

Police officers are exposed to risk and violence, which makes their work highly stressful. According to the Job Demand-Resource model, the working conditions of police officers may affect their health and job satisfaction. The aims of this research were to evaluate the psychosocial factors at work in a sample of municipal police officers from the Valencian Community (Spain) to identify the prevalence of psychosocial risks and their consequences and analyse the influence of psychosocial factors (resource and demands) at work on job satisfaction and health. The Unidad de Investigación Psicosocial de la Conducta Organizacional (UNIPSICO) battery was used to evaluate the prevalence and distribution of different levels of risk and their consequences in police officers (n=103). The influence of psychosocial factors (resource and demands) at work on psychosomatic disorders and job satisfaction was examined using stepwise regression analysis. All considered variables showed moderate levels of psychosocial risk for the whole sample. As for the consequences of psychosocial risks, moderate levels of psychosomatic disorders and job satisfaction were also observed. Perceived stress levels and organizational stressors have a negative effect on health and job satisfaction. To create positive conditions for the health and well-being of police officers, real commitment is required when evaluating psychosocial risks in local police organizations and the establishment of prevention and intervention measures where psychosocial risk factors are detected.

The effects of immigration enforcement on traffic stops: Changing driver or police behavior?

AbstractResearch SummaryThis research asks whether jail‐based immigration enforcement leads to the profiling of Hispanics by municipal police. I leverage a natural experiment to examine the effects of 287(g) jail partnerships on traffic stops and arrests by municipal police in North Carolina in the late 2000s. I find that stops of Hispanic drivers fell in the wake of 287(g) agreements, and show that this fall was driven by changes in Hispanic road use. While I cannot unambiguously disentangle police and driver behavior, I find no evidence that municipal police officers increased pretextual stops and arrests of Hispanic drivers.Policy ImplicationsWhile there is existing evidence of racial profiling under 287(g) agreements by sheriff's deputies, this behavior does not appear to have extended to nonsignatory municipal police agencies. Despite this, the signing of 287(g) agreements appears to have prompted Hispanic outmigration and changes in driving behavior, adding to a growing body of evidence on the ripple effects of local‐federal immigration enforcement partnerships in Hispanic communities. This serves as a reminder that changes in demographic composition of the immigrant population may mediate the effects of immigration enforcement efforts on other outcomes.

Impact of SHIELD Police Training on Knowledge of Syringe Possession Laws and Related Arrests in Tijuana, Mexico.

Between 2015 and 2018, we provided training for 1806 municipal police officers in Tijuana, Mexico, in an effort to improve their knowledge and behaviors related to HIV and injection drug use. Correct knowledge of syringe possession laws improved from 56% before training to 94% after training and was sustained at 24 months (75%). Knowledge improvement was associated with decreases in arrests for syringe possession over time (adjusted odds ratio [AOR] = 0.87; 95% confidence interval [CI] = 0.85, 0.90). Officers with correct knowledge had significantly lower odds of reporting arrests (AOR = 0.63; 95% CI = 0.44, 0.89). Training was associated with sustained improvements in knowledge and practices that advance public health. (Am J Public Health. 2022;112(6):860-864. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2021.306702).

Psychometric Properties of the PSQ-OP and PSQ-ORG in Puerto Rico

Background: There are several factors related to stress in police officers. The organization plays a role in impacting police officers who experience a heavy workload, and there is a close relationship between operational stress and personal and work-related outcomes. Objectives: This work aims to present the psychometric properties of the PSQ-OP and the PSQ-ORG questionnaire Spanish adapted version. Method: A quantitative study cross-sectional and instrumental type design in a sample of 200 municipal police officers in Puerto Rico and analysis carried out to verify the factorial structure of the questionnaires and the reliability and validity indicators. Results: The Confirmatory Factor Analysis with Structural Equation Modeling showed adequate validity and reliability indicators in both PSQ-OP and the PSQ-ORG questionnaire Spanish adapted version with one-factor structure as in the original English version questionnaire. Conclusion: This study provides an instrument for professionals to study the operational and organizational stress in police officers and allows them to contribute new studies and literature in Puerto Rico.

The Effect of Papaya (Carica papaya) Juice on Body Weights of The Municipal Police Officers in Ternate (Polres Ternate)

Background: Overweight and obesity issue occur in Municipal Police Officers in Ternate (Polres Ternate). A pilot study has been done in Polres Ternate and found that there were 70 cases of overweight Police Officers. According to the attending health care profession, the treatment of those overweight cases had been done through exercise but without diet management.
 This is an experimental study with pre- and post-test in both control and intervention group. Population in this study was 70 Overweight Municipal Police Officers in Ternate (Polres Ternate). The sample size in this study was 30 respondents which were were randomly selected and divided into 15 in each of intervention and control group. Intervention group was given papaya juice while control group was given placebo for 60 days.
 The results show that there was significant different body weight between before and after intervention in intervention group but there was non-significant different body weight between before and after intervention in control group. There was non-significant different body weight between intervention group and control group after intervention.
 Body weight loss happened in intervention group which caused by papaya juice administration together with the education and motivation of the respondents. Nevertheless, there was no significant different between intervention group and control group after intervention.

Occupational Safety of Municipal Police Officers: Assessing the Vulnerability and Riskiness of Police Officers' Work.

The municipal police agencies increase the safety of a municipality’s citizens and thus increase their quality of life. When performing interventions, municipal police officers may endanger their safety and health. This paper deals with the analysis of the riskiness of municipal police officers working in the Slovak Republic and the Czech Republic from 2004 to 2019 and the assessment of their occupational safety. The risk analysis was carried out on the basis of a risk matrix and calculations of the probability of attack and injury to municipal police officers. Using the Pearson correlation coefficient, the dependence between the selected variables was investigated. The reliability of this dependence was examined by the determination coefficient. The main result of the paper is the determination of the riskiness category of municipal police officer work based on the assessment of the occupational health protection of officers through statistical indicators of their activities and risk matrix. The results will serve as part of the explanatory memorandum for the proposal of legislative changes in order to increase the occupational health protection of municipal police officers.

Brothers, Workers or Syrians? The Politics of Naming in Lebanese Municipalities

Abstract Displaced Syrians in Lebanon face a multitude of legal, social and political categories that operate together to structure their lives and opportunities. One important site of juxtaposition of these various categories can be found in the area of municipal governance, namely in the form of bannered discriminatory curfews that line the public squares of many of Lebanon’s urban neighbourhood, towns and villages. The various named ‘targets’ of these curfews—whether foreigners, Syrians, displaced, labourers, brothers or the disembodied ‘motorbike’ (a class marker in this context)—instantiate the complexity of issues of Syrian belonging in this context. This article examines these categories through their historical, political and social dimensions, and through the lived experience of Syrians who encounter, negotiate and—at times—resist them. Building on over a year of fieldwork in Lebanon from October 2015 to December 2016, this article relies on a diverse set of sources, including ethnographic observation, documents and interviews with a wide array of actors including Lebanese citizens and displaced Syrians, mayors and municipal police officers, as well as lawyers, journalists, aid workers and central government officials.

Mental health and social support among public safety personnel.

Social support may be a protective factor for the mental health of public safety personnel (PSP), who are frequently exposed to potentially psychologically traumatic events and report substantial post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and major depressive disorder (MDD) symptoms. Research examining perceived social support and its association with PTSD and MDD in different PSP categories (e.g. firefighters, paramedics) is limited. To examine differences in perceived social support across PSP and determine whether perceived social support is associated with differences in rates of MDD and PTSD. We asked Canadian PSP, including correctional workers and officers, public safety communications officials, firefighters, paramedics, municipal and provincial police officers, and Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP) officers, to complete an online anonymous survey that assessed socio-demographic information (e.g. occupation, sex, marital status, service years), social supports and symptoms of mental disorders, including PTSD and MDD. Analyses included ANOVA and logistic regression models. Perceived social support differed by PSP occupation. RCMP officers reported lower social support than all other PSP except paramedics. For most PSP categories, PSP who reported greater social support were less likely to screen positive for PTSD (adjusted odds ratios [AORs]: 0.90-0.93). Across all PSP categories, greater perceived social support was associated with a decreased likelihood of screening positive for MDD (AORs: 0.85-0.91). Perceived social support differs across some PSP categories and predicts PTSD and MDD diagnostic status. Studies involving diagnostic clinical interviews, longitudinal designs and social support interventions are needed to replicate and extend our results.

\u201cPick up anything that moves\u201d: a qualitative analysis of a police crackdown against people who use drugs in Tijuana, Mexico

BackgroundHomeless people who use drugs (PWUD) are often displaced, detained, and/or forced into drug treatment during police crackdowns. Such operations follow a zero-tolerance approach to law enforcement and have a deleterious impact on the health of PWUD. In Mexico, municipal police officers (MPOs) conducted the largest crackdown documented at the Tijuana River Canal (Tijuana Mejora) to dismantle an open drug market. We analyzed active-duty MPOs’ attitudes on the rationale, implementation, and outcomes of the crackdown. We also included the involvement of non-governmental allies in the disguised imprisonment as drug treatment referral and potential legal consequences of having illegally detained PWUD.MethodsBetween February–June 2016, 20 semi-structured interviews were conducted with MPOs in Tijuana. Interviews were transcribed, translated and coded using a consensus-based approach. Emergent themes, trends and frameworks were analyzed through a hermeneutic grounded theory protocol.ResultsParticipants recognized the limitations of Tijuana Mejora in effectively controlling crime and addressing drug treatment solutions. MPOs perceived that the intent of the operation was to displace and detain homeless PWUD, not to assist or rehabilitate them. The police operation was largely justified as a public safety measure to reduce the risk of injury due to flooding, decrease drug consumption among PWUD and protect local tourism from PWUD. Some participants perceived the crackdown as a successful public health and safety measure while others highlighted occupational risks to MPOs and potential human rights violations of PWUD.ConclusionsTijuana Mejora illustrated why public and private actors align in enforcing zero-tolerance drug policy. Perceptions of care are often based on captivity of the diseased, not in health and well-being of PWUD. Officer perceptions shed light on the many limitations of this punitive policing tool in this context. A shift towards evidence-based municipal strategies to address drug use, wherein police are perceived as partners in harm reduction rather than antagonists, is warranted.

Conflicting Laws and Priorities as Drug Policy Implementation Barriers: A Qualitative Analysis of Police Perspectives in Tijuana, Mexico

AbstractBackground and AimsDrug policy reforms typically seek to improve health among people who use drugs (PWUD), but flawed implementation impedes potential benefits. Mexico’s 2009 drug policy reform emphasized public health-oriented measures to address addiction. Implementation has been deficient, however. We explored the role of municipal police officers’ (MPOs) enforcement decision-making and local systems as barriers to reform operationalization.MethodsBetween February-June 2016, 20 semi-structured interviews were conducted with MPOs in Tijuana. Interviews were transcribed, translated and coded using a consensus-based approach. Emergent themes, trends and frameworks were analyzed through a hermeneutic grounded theory protocol.ResultsIn conceptualizing their orientation towards municipal (not state) law, MPOs reported prioritizing enforcement of nebulous anti-vice ordinances to control PWUD activity. Local laws were seen as conflicting with drug policy reforms. Incentives within the police organization were aligned with ordinance enforcement, generating pressure through quotas and reinforced by judges. Driven by discretion, fuzzy understanding of procedures, and incentives to sanitize space, detention of PWUD for minor infractions was systematic.ConclusionsFailure to harmonize policies and priorities at different levels of government undermine effective operationalization of health-oriented drug policy. Implementation must address local priorities and administrative pressures shaping MPO decision-making and enforcement practice.

Stress at work: The case of municipal police officers.

INTRODUCTION AND OBJECTIVE:Occupational stress-related factors among working municipal police officers in Poland have not been examined in the literature. The purpose of the paper was to evaluate the impact of selected work-related factors on occupational stress in active municipal police officers in Warsaw by using configural frequency analysis (CFA).MATERIALS AND METHODS:A cross-sectional study was conducted among 578 participants, which accounted for 55.1% of all municipal police officers in Warsaw. The majority of study participants were men (72%) (mean age 43 years old). Two groups of workplace-related stress factors were analysed in the study: physical conditions and organisational working conditions causing stress. The study was carried out using the PAPI method (Paper-and-Pencil Interviewing), based on a proprietary questionnaire developed for the study. CFA searches for templates and patterns in contingency tables.RESULTS:Municipal police officers who claimed that stress did not affect health, took advantage of psychological/psychiatric advice less often than those who thought so (1.7% vs 10.1%; χ2 = 20.152, df = 2, P = 0.000). Those who declared that they often experienced stress at work were also more prone to claiming that one or two factors affected their level of stress: physical abuse, contact with infectious materials, working at uncomfortable temperatures or working in a noisy environment. In the opinion of the study population, there were some factors which contributed to the occurrence of stress at work, and these factors included: working in a hurry, lack of necessary resources, devices and materials at work, the need to be available at all times and the unpredictability of the work. The municipal police officers from the study population combined two or three methods to cope with stress, such as watching TV, surfing the Internet and talking with their families.CONCLUSION:Due to the specificity of a municipal police officer’s occupation, special attention should be paid to the occupational stress risk factors characteristic for this group of professionals, and measures should be taken to reduce the number of stressors. It is important to organise training events devoted to effective methods of coping with stress. There is need to carry out more in-depth studies of occupational stress among municipal police officers.

The Association Between Fitness Test Scores and Musculoskeletal Injury in Police Officers.

A police officer’s career is hazardous and physically demanding. In order to perform occupational tasks effectively and without injury, officers require adequate physical abilities. The aim of this study was to investigate the relationship between scores on several fitness tests and musculoskeletal injury in a group of municipal police officers. This retrospective study used existing data to examine the relationship between risk of injury and fitness test performance. Injured and uninjured police officers scored significantly differently on several fitness measures. A multivariate regression indicated that a combination of age, sex, number of pull ups completed and maximal oxygen consumption (VO2max) best explained injury risk. Additionally, the findings indicated an interaction between sex and VO2max, and so the effect of VO2max on injury risk cannot be understood without accounting for sex.

Plural policing as professional strife. Municipal officers and police officers in the Netherlands

In the past 30 years, the introduction of new providers of policing services has meant that the policing landscape in many countries has changed considerably. In the Netherlands, an important aspect of this ‘pluralization of policing’ is the introduction of municipal officers: new, public officials who are employed by Dutch municipalities. This article discusses how front-line professionals themselves view these changes and the division of labour between the regular police and municipal officers. By interpreting their views as strife and contestation over professional domains and by borrowing concepts from the sociology of professions, it adds a novel perspective to the current debate on plural policing. The article discerns four views, two of which highlight differences and two of which highlight similarities between these professions. In interpreting these views, the article states that officers define their professions mostly by referring to fundamental argumentations about professional core aspects and higher values. This implies the ‘professional projects’ of front-line workers might be as important as their orientation on outside (societal) needs and desires.

Perceived Value of Higher Education among Police Officers: Comparing County and Municipal Officers

The purpose of this study was to examine the perception of higher education among police officers, to determine whether these perceptions vary among county and municipal police officers, and to explore the types of suggestions that officers might have for improving the college curriculum. A survey was administered to police officers from five departments. Data analysis revealed a mixed view of the perceived value of higher education. Officers employed by municipal departments had a more positive general perceived value of higher education compared to officers employed by county sheriff’s offices. This study also found several common suggestions for improvement to the higher education curriculum, including more hands-on experience, instructors with experience as law enforcement officers, and improved writing and interpersonal communication skills.

Symbolically Annihilating Female Police Officer Capabilities: Cultivating Gendered Police Use of Force Expectations?

This first step cultivation analysis examines the quantity, temporal dynamics, and stance of municipal police officer use of force depictions based on the gender of the officer. The 112 theatrically released films that comprise the core cop film genre were systematically identified. Subsequently, a population of 468 police use of force scenes was identified to serve as the units of analysis for this study. Findings revealed male officer use of force scenes appeared across all 40 years of films. Female officer use of force scenes, however, were highly restricted to specific films, years, and often dwarfed by male scenes within films. Lone female officer use of force scenes saw their highest representation in the 1980s but declined in the 1990s and 2000s, becoming increasingly dependent on a male officer’s presence. Implications of such patterns are discussed as well as potential second step cultivation studies.

Factors associated with extrajudicial arrest for syringe possession: results of a department-wide survey of municipal police in Tijuana, Mexico

BackgroundMexican law permits syringe purchase and possession without prescription. Nonetheless, people who inject drugs (PWID) frequently report arrest for syringe possession. Extrajudicial arrests not only violate human rights, but also significantly increase the risk of blood-borne infection transmission and other health harms among PWID and police personnel. To better understand how police practices contribute to the PWID risk environment, prior research has primarily examined drug user perspectives and experiences. This study focuses on municipal police officers (MPOs) in Tijuana, Mexico to identify factors associated with self-reported arrests for syringe possession.MethodsParticipants were active police officers aged ≥18 years, who completed a self-administered questionnaire on knowledge, attitudes and behaviors related to occupational safety, drug laws, and harm reduction strategies. Univariable and multivariable logistic regression was used to identify correlates of recent syringe possession arrest.ResultsAmong 1044 MPOs, nearly half (47.9%) reported always/sometimes making arrests for syringe possession (previous 6mo). Factors independently associated with more frequent arrest included being male (Adjusted Odds Ratio [AOR] = 1.62; 95% Confidence Interval [95% CI] =1.04–2.52; working in a district along Tijuana River Canal (where PWID congregate) (AOR = 2.85; 95%CI = 2.16–3.77); having recently experienced a physical altercation with PWID (AOR = 2.83; 95% CI = 2.15–3.74); and having recently referred PWID to social and health services (AOR = 1.97; 95% CI = 1.48–2.61). Conversely, odds were significantly lower among officers reporting knowing that syringe possession is legal (AOR = 0.61; 95% CI = 0.46–0.82).ConclusionsPolice and related criminal justice stakeholders (e.g., municipal judges, prosecutors) play a key role in shaping PWID risk environment. Findings highlight the urgent need for structural interventions to reduce extra-judicial syringe possession arrests. Police training, increasing gender and other forms of diversity, and policy reforms at various governmental and institutional levels are necessary to reduce police occupational risks, improve knowledge of drug laws, and facilitate harm reduction strategies that promote human rights and community health.

Significados de género y sexualidad en la violencia de pareja: víctimas, agresores y policías en Hermosillo, Sonora

En este artículo se exploran desde una perspectiva sociocultural los significados sexuales y de género que expresan mujeres que sufren violencia de pareja, agresores, y policías municipales que atienden el problema. Esto es importante para comprender los nexos entre dichos significados (en especial, los asociados con violencia de género) y las prácticas institucionalizadas de agentes sociales involucrados en la atención policial reactiva hacia la violencia de pareja en Hermosillo. Se constata la existencia de valoraciones, ideas o percepciones de fuerte raigambre sociocultural (tradicional) sobre las relaciones entre hombres y mujeres, que afectan las acciones institucionalizadas de quienes viven o ejercen violencia de pareja, así como las prácticas de quienes se encargan de los procesos de intervención policial en ese problema.

Measuring improvement in knowledge of drug policy reforms following a police education program in Tijuana, Mexico

BackgroundMexico’s 2009 “narcomenudeo reform” decriminalized small amounts of drugs, shifting some drug law enforcement to the states and mandating drug treatment diversion instead of incarceration. Data from Tijuana suggested limited implementation of this harm reduction-oriented policy. We studied whether a police education program (PEP) improved officers’ drug and syringe policy knowledge, and aimed to identify participant characteristics associated with improvement of drug policy knowledge.MethodsPre- and post-training surveys were self-administered by municipal police officers to measure legal knowledge. Training impact was assessed through matched paired nominal data using McNemar’s tests. Multivariable logistic regression was used to identify predictors of improved legal knowledge, as measured by officers’ ability to identify conceptual legal provisions related to syringe possession and thresholds of drugs covered under the reform.ResultsOf 1750 respondents comparing pre- versus post training, officers reported significant improvement (p < 0.001) in their technical understanding of syringe possession (56 to 91%) and drug amounts decriminalized, including marijuana (9 to 52%), heroin (8 to 71%), and methamphetamine (7 to 70%). The training was associated with even greater success in improving conceptual legal knowledge for syringe possession (67 to 96%) (p < 0.001), marijuana (16 to 91%), heroin (11 to 91%), and methamphetamine (11 to 89%). In multivariable modeling, those with at least a high school education were more likely to exhibit improvement of conceptual legal knowledge of syringe possession (adjusted odds ratio [aOR] 2.6, 95% CI 1.4–3.2) and decriminalization for heroin (aOR 2.7, 95% CI 1.3–4.3), methamphetamine (aOR 2.2, 95% CI 1.4–3.2), and marijuana (aOR 2.5, 95% CI 1.6–4).ConclusionsDrug policy reform is often necessary, but not sufficient to achieve public health goals because of gaps in translating formal laws to policing practice. To close such gaps, PEP initiatives bundling occupational safety information with relevant legal content demonstrate clear promise. Our findings underscore additional efforts needed to raise technical knowledge of the law among personnel tasked with its enforcement. Police professionalization, including minimum educational standards, appear critical for aligning policing with harm reduction goals.