Multiple Antibiotic Resistant Bacteria Research Articles

Transfer of antibiotic-resistant bacteria via ballast water with a special focus on multiple antibiotic-resistant bacteria: A survey from an inland port in the Yangtze River

Ship ballast water can transfer harmful organisms, including antibiotic-resistant bacteria (ARB), among geographically isolated waters. In this study, the presence and composition of ARB and multiple ARB (MARB) were investigated in the ballast waters of 30 vessels sailing to the Port of Jiangyin (Jiangsu Province, China). ARB were detected in 83.3% of the ship's ballast water samples. Moreover, penicillin- and cephalothin-resistant bacteria were the most and least prevalent ARB in the ballast waters, respectively. Oxytetracycline-, chloramphenicol-, tetracycline-, and vancomycin-resistant bacteria were also detected at high concentrations. The multiple antibiotic resistance index demonstrated the presence of MARB, which exceeded 200% in the ballast waters of five ships. Furthermore, 15 species, including the human opportunistic pathogens Vibrio alginolyticus and Serratia nematodiphila, were resistant to at least three antibiotics. Therefore, the potential ecological risk of ARB warrants further attention because of their effective invasion by ballast water.

Microbial Robots to Treat the third Degree Burnt Patients: Review

Burn is responsible for an estimated 180,000 deaths annually. A burn is skin damage caused through either high temperature or because of radiation, radioactivity, electricity, or contact with chemicals. A burn is skin damage, which is resulted because of electricity, radiation, radioactivity, or exposure to chemicals. Skin is the primary barrier to infection and burns patients lose their skin the risk of infection persists as the barrier is absent. The leading cause of death after burn injury is sepsis. Sepsis is lethal organ dysfunction caused by a host’s dysregulated response to infection. Multiple antibiotic-resistant bacteria are responsible for the majority of deaths due to sepsis. Third-degree burns go through the skin and deeper tissues are affected. Third-degree burns may need more thorough treatments. Treatment includes intravenous antibiotics to prevent infections, surgical excision, and skin grafting. Treatments given to third-degree burnt patients are not giving satisfactory results. As robotics is a suitable way to work in delicate environments it can be an effective way to deal with sensitive burnt areas. This review focuses on the cause of infection and treatment of burnt patients.

Trema orientalis Linn. Blume: Susceptibility Patterns of Selected Multiple Antibiotic Resistant Bacteria and Fungi to the Leaf Extracts

This study investigates the antifungal and antibacterial activities of extracts of Trema orientalis linn. Blume. The selected isolates used in the study includes Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Escherichia coli, Salmonella typhi, Streptococcus faecalis, Shigella dysenteriae, Proteus mirabilis, Haemolytic Streptococcus viridian, Aspergillus niger, Candida albicans ,and Aspergillus flavus. The antibiogram profile of the organism was obtained using the disc diffusion method. Tannin, flavonoid, Terpenoid, Saponin, and cardiac glycosides were found present in T. orientalis. The antibiotic sensitivity test reveals the presence of multiple antibiotic resistant bacteria. The agar well diffusion method was used to assay the antibiotic activities of the extract. The extracts were prepared from T. orientalis using Methanol and petroleum ether as extraction solvents. The antibacterial assay shows the efficacy of the methanol and petroleum ether extracts except on S. aureus ATCC 43300 and Shigella dysenteriae. The highest zones of inhibition by methanol and petroleum ether extracts were recorded on Salmonella typhi of 22.003 ± 0.003 mm and 32.002 ± 0.002 mm, respectively. The fungal isolates were susceptible to the extracts with the zones 11.67±0.33 mm and 13.67±0.33 mm. The results of the sensitivity test compared well with that of the antimicrobial test. The Minimum Inhibitory Concentration ranged between 3.125- 25.00 mg/mL. T. Orientalis contains bioactive compounds that has antimicrobial effects. The leaf of Trema orientalis has broad - spectrum activity, hence T. Orientalis methanol and Petroleum ether extracts is recommended for exploration as source of antimicrobial agents.

Distribution of Antibiotic-Resistant Enterobacteriaceae Pathogens in Potable Spring Water of Eastern Indian Himalayas: Emphasis on Virulence Gene and Antibiotic Resistance Genes in Escherichia coli.

Every year millions of people die due to fatal waterborne diseases around the world especially in developing countries like India. Sikkim, a northeastern state of India, greatly depends on natural water sources. About 80% of the population of Sikkim depends on natural spring water for domestic as well as agricultural use. Recent waterborne disease outbreaks in the state raises a concerning question on water quality. In this study, we analyzed water quality especially for the detection of Enterobacteriaceae members from four districts of the state. Isolation with selective culture media techniques and taxonomic characterization of Enterobacteriaceae bacteria with 16S rRNA gene showed the prevalence of Escherichia coli (37.50%), Escherichia fergusonii (29.41%), Klebsiella oxytoca (36.93%), Citrobacter freundii (37.92%), Citrobacter amalonaticus (43.82%), Enterobacter sp. (43.82%), Morganella morganii (43.82%), Hafnia alvei (32.42%), Hafnia paralvei (38.74%), and Shigella flexneri (30.47%) in the spring water of Sikkim. Antibiotic susceptibility test (AST) showed resistance of the isolates to common antibiotics like ampicillin, amoxicillin as well as to third generation antibiotics like ceftazidime and carbapenem. None of the isolates showed resistance to chloramphenicol. E. coli isolated from spring water of Sikkim showed presence of different virulence genes such as stx1 (81.81%), elt (86.66%), and eae (66.66%) along with resistance gene for ampicillin (CITM) (80%), quinolones (qnrB) (44.44%), tetracycline (tetO) (66.66%), and streptomycin (aadA1) (66.66%). The data indicates a high incidence rate of multiple antibiotic resistant enteric bacteria in the spring water of Sikkim. Additionally, the presence of enteric bacteria in the water samples indicates widespread fecal contamination of the spring water.

Outdoor Air Quality and Antibiogram Characteristics of Bacterial Isolates of Akure City Abattoirs, Nigeria

Normal 0 false false false EN-US X-NONE X-NONE /* Style Definitions */ table.MsoNormalTable {mso-style-name:"Table Normal"; mso-tstyle-rowband-size:0; mso-tstyle-colband-size:0; mso-style-noshow:yes; mso-style-priority:99; mso-style-parent:""; mso-padding-alt:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; mso-para-margin-top:0in; mso-para-margin-right:0in; mso-para-margin-bottom:10.0pt; mso-para-margin-left:0in; line-height:115%; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:11.0pt; font-family:"Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-font-family:Calibri; mso-ascii-theme-font:minor-latin; mso-hansi-font-family:Calibri; mso-hansi-theme-font:minor-latin;} Air sampling of Onyearugbulem and FUTA abattoirs was carried out to evaluate their quality. Air sampling was done using the open-settling method on general and selective agar media of the gutter, sleeping bench, slaughtering floor dumpsite, slaughtering table and roof of the abattoirs. Using standard methods, Presumptive identification of the bacterial isolates was carried out. An array of ten (10) conventional antibiotics was used to assay the antibiotic susceptibility characteristics of the bacterial isolates. Multiple antibiotic sensitivity index (MARI) was determined for isolated bacteria. At Onyearugbulem abattoir, the total Escherichia coli count ranged from 3.6×10 cfu/ml from the gutter and slaughtering table to 6.5×10 cfu/ml from the slaughtering floor, while the total bacterial count ranged from 1.34×102 cfu/ml from dumpsite to 2.55×102 cfu/ml from the gutter, the total coliform count ranged from 2.8×10 cfu/ml from slaughtering floor to 4.1×10 cfu/ml from sleeping bench. Several bacteria were presumptively isolated. These include: Micrococcus sp., Bacillus sp., Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, Proteus sp., Enterobacter aerogenes and Aeromonas sp. Ciprofloxacin (10 µg) had an inhibitory effect on all the Gram positive bacterial isolates with the highest inhibitory activity on S. aureus at 24.00 mm, and the Gram negative bacteria with the highest inhibitory activity on E. coli at 21.00 mm. Micrococcus sp. had the highest MARI of 0.8. These findings reveal the presence of multiple-antibiotic resistant bacteria in Onyearugbulem and FUTA abattoirs’ atmosphere. There is therefore need for routine environmental sanitation of the slaughterhouses.

Antibiotic resistance profile of Gram-negative bacteria isolated from Lafenwa abattoir effluent and its receiving water (Ogun River) in Abeokuta, Ogun state, Nigeria.

Untreated abattoir effluent constitutes potential reservoir for transmission of pathogenic strains of multiple antibiotic-resistant bacteria by pollution of surface and ground water sources. This study was carried out to determine the antibiotic resistance and extended spectrum β-lactamase (ESBL) production profiles of Gram-negative bacteria isolated from effluent collected from Lafenwa municipal abattoir and its receiving surface water, Ogun River, in Abeokuta, Ogun state, Nigeria. Twelve effluent and 18 water samples were collected for this study. Total heterotrophic and coliform counts were estimated, bacterial identification was performed using standard culture-based procedures, whilst antibiotic resistance profiles of isolated bacteria against five antibiotics (ceftazidime, cefpodoxime, cefotaxime, ertapenem and amoxicillin-clavulanate) and detection of ESBLs were done using disk diffusion and double-disc synergy tests. A total of 54 Gram-negative bacteria were isolated, including Salmonella spp. (9), Escherichia coli (15), Klebsiella spp. (7), Shigella spp. (5), Pseudomonas spp. (12) and Enterobacter spp. (6). Both Enterobacteriaceae and Pseudomonas isolates (31% and 66.6%, respectively) were resistant to all selected antibiotics except ertapenem (98% susceptibility). Overall, 77% isolates had multiple antibiotic resistance index (MARI) values, but none of the antibiotic-resistant isolates showed evidence of ESBL production. The presence of multiple antibiotic-resistant isolates in the effluent and receiving water of Lafenwa abattoir suggests a major risk to public health and food safety. Current methods of waste disposal at the abattoir are unacceptable and greatly reduce the qualities of the processed meat and contaminate the environment. There is a need for improved abattoir waste management and water treatment strategies.

Detection of Multidrug Resistant Gram Negative Bacteria in Healthy Cattle from Maiduguri Metropolitan, Nigeria

Aim: Prevalence of multidrug resistant bacteria on apparently health animals has turned antibiotic resistance to multifaceted process and threatens global food security and public health. The aim of the present study was to investigate the resistance profile of isolates from apparently healthy cattle in Maiduguri, Nigeria.
 Methodology: A total of 120 nasal swab samples were collected from cattle. Colony identification was according to the guidelines of Bergey’s Manual of Determinative Bacteriology. The susceptibility pattern of the isolates was conducted on the identified isolates according to the Modified Kirby-Baur disc diffusion method on Muller-Hilton agar and interpreted according to the procedures of Clinical Laboratory Standards Institute (CLSI, 2018) guidelines. Multiple Antibiotic Resistance Index (MARI) was calculated using the formula, MARI=a/b where “a” is the number of antibiotic resisted and “b” is the total number of antibiotic used in the study.
 Results: Of the total samples (120) from cattle 96 (80%) detected the following isolates; E. coli was the most commonly recovered isolates (33, 34.4%), followed by Klebsiella spp (28, 29.2%), Salmonella spp (21, 21.9%) and Pseudomonas aeruginosa (14, 14.5%). In this study, all the recovered isolates were found to be multidrug resistant gram negative bacteria, with highest resistance was shown by Salmonella spp. The high MARI observed in all the isolates in this study ranging from 0.7 to 0.9. MARI value of 0.2 > is suggests multiple antibiotic resistant bacteria and indicate presence of highly resistant bacteria.
 Conclusion: The study indicates highly resistant bacteria are carried by healthy food animals. Thus, there is need for continued monitoring of antibiotics use in animal husbandry to prevent further spread of resistance in Maiduguri, Nigeria.

Distribution and prevalence of antibiotic resistant bacteria in fish farms in East Malaysia

Aims: Aquaculture has grown tremendously in Malaysia over the past decades. However, guaranteeing aquaculture sustainability is a big challenge in terms of maintaining continuous output with a safe environment. Furthermore, the cultured species should be free from antibiotic resistance bacterial and antibiotic residue. This study aimed to monitor the existence and prevalence of antibiotic resistant bacteria associated with aquaculture farms in Sarawak. Methodology and results: Samples of water, sediment and fish were collected from five aquaculture farms within Sarawak. The samples were plated on trypticase soy agar and incubated at 28 °C for 24 h. A total of 204 bacterial isolates were isolated and analysed by (GTG)5-fingerprinting to determine genetic similarity among the bacterial isolates, so that representatives could be selected from similar clonal isolates. Based on the (GTG)5 profiles, 50 representative isolates were chosen for species identification using 16S rRNA sequencing. The identified bacteria were tested against 25 antibiotics using standard disk diffusion method. The 16S rRNA analysis revealed that the isolates constitute of 14 genera of bacteria including Bacillus (38%), Exiguobacterium (16%), Enterobacter (14%), Aeromonas (6%), Acinetobacter (4%), Citrobacter (4%), Staphylococcus (4%), Achromobacter (2%), Chitinophaga (2%), Fictibacillus (2%), Plesiomonas (2%), Pseudomonas (2%), Pseudoxanthomonas (2%) and Stenotrophomonas (2%). The antibiotic resistance analysis revealed that the highest percentage of resistance was recorded against streptomycin (75.0%), followed by ampicillin (66.0%), ceftriaxone (50.0%), rifampin (43.3%), aztreonam (36.8%) and ceftazidime (31.6%). Resistance to more than two antibiotics was observed in 40.0% of isolates with an overall multiple antibiotic resistant (MAR) index ranging from 0 to 0.79. Conclusion, significant and impact of study: The variability of antibiotic resistance patterns exhibited by different bacterial species suggests a dependence on selective pressures exhibited in different geographical locations. Our results show that the occurrence of MAR bacteria in an aquaculture environment with unknown history of antibiotics usage in the aquaculture system is possible, indicating a need to continuously monitor the presence of antibiotic resistant bacteria in the aquaculture system.

Memantine Displays Antimicrobial Activity by Enhancing Escherichia coli Pathogen-Induced Formation of Neutrophil Extracellular Traps.

Bacterial infection remains one of the leading causes of death worldwide due to the continuous rise of multiple antibiotic-resistant bacteria. Focusing solely on bacteria as the drug targets is a major limitation inherent in the conventional antibiotic therapy. Recently, host-directed therapies have become such an innovative approach to modulate the host defense system and the interplay of innate and adaptive immunity. Our previous studies showed that memantine (MEM), an α7 nAChR antagonist, could efficiently block multi-drug resistant Escherichia coli-caused bacteremia and meningitis in a mouse model. However, the underlying mechanisms that govern the antibacterial effects of MEM are still unknown. In this study, we demonstrated that MEM is able to significantly suppress E. coli infection by enhancing E. coli-induced formation and release of NETs in vitro and in vivo. MEM could promote the trapping and bactericidal activities of the polymorphonuclear neutrophils (PMNs) in a manner dependent on α7 nAChR, since knockdown of this receptor noticeably reduces the survival ability of bacteria in PMNs while MEM no longer affects the survival of bacteria in PMNs. Our results also showed that when the expression of S100A9, an antiseptic protein, is inhibited, pathogen survival rates in PMNs increase significantly. MEM reverses this effect in a concentration-dependent manner. MEM stimulates the production of MPO, S100A9, and DNA in PMNs and accelerates the release of depolymerized chromatin fibers into the extracellular space, suggesting the formation of NETs. Taken together, our data suggest that MEM effectively blocks bacterial infection through the promotion of the antibacterial function of NETs induced by E. coli.

The profile of antibiotic resistance genes in pig manure composting shaped by composting stage: Mesophilic-thermophilic and cooling-maturation stages

The variation of antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) and influential factors in pig manure composting were investigated by conducting simulated composting tests using four different supplement materials (wheat straw, corn straw, poplar sawdust and spent mushroom). The results show that the relative abundance of total ARGs increased by 0.19–1.61 logs after composting, and tetX, sulI, sulII, dfrA1 and aadA were the major contributors. The variations of ARG profiles and bacterial communities throughout the composting were clearly divided into mesophilic-thermophilic and cooling-maturation stages in all tests, while different supplement materials did not exert a noticeable influence. Network analysis demonstrated the diversity of bacterial hosts for ARGs, the existence of multiple antibiotic resistant bacteria, and the weak correlations between ARGs and physicochemical factors in the composting piles. Of note, integron intI1 and Mycobacterium (a potential pathogen) were positively correlated with eight and four ARGs, respectively, that displayed increased abundance after composting.

Distribution and Antibiotic Sensitivity Patterns of Faecal Bacteria from Underground Faecal Storage Cisterns in Ondo State, Nigeria

Two hundred and fifty-six (256) human faecal samples were collected from thirty-three (33) underground faecal storage cisterns across 5 major towns (Akure, Akungba, Ondo, Ore and Owo) in Ondo State, Nigeria. Salmonella-Shigella agar, Eosine Methylene Blue agar and MacConkey agar, which are selective for faecal bacteria, were used to isolate a total of 103 strains of Gram-negative bacteria. Biochemical characterization of the isolates revealed Escherichia coli (32.04%), Enterobacter aerogenes (14.56), Klepsiella pneumoniae (12.62%), Salmonella typhi (11.65%), Psudomonas aeruginosa (7.77%), Shigella dysenteriae (6.80%), Proteus mirabilis (5.83%), Citrobacter koseri (3.88%), Providentia alcalifaciens (2.91%) and Klepsiella oxytoca (1.94%). All the bacterial isolates were then subjected to antibiotic sensitivity test using antibiotic discs impregnated with Augmentin (30 µg), Gentamycin (10 µg), Pefloxacin (10 µg), Ofloxacin (5 µg), Streptomycin (10 μg), Sulfomethoxazole-trimethoprim (30 µg), Chloramphenicol (30 μg); Sparfloxacin (10 μg); Ciprofloxacin (5 μg) and Amoxicillin (20 μg). The resistance of the isolates to the antibiotics used varied from 27.18% to Ciprofloxacin, 33.98% to Ofloxacin, 47.57% to Sulphomethazole-Trimethroprim, 56.31% to Streptomycin, 66.99% to Chloramphenicol, 74.76% to Pefloxacin, 75.73% to Sparfloxacin, 75.73% to Gentamycin, 85.44% to Ampicillin and 95.15 to Augmentin. These results showed that underground human faecal storage cisterns contain potential multiple antibiotic resistant bacteria that may be transmitted to human via formites, animal vectors and water.

Outdoor Air Quality and Antibiogram Characteristics of Bacterial Isolates of Akure City Abattoirs, Nigeria

Air sampling of Onyearugbulem and FUTA abattoirs was carried out to evaluate their quality. Air sampling was done using the open-settling method on general and selective agar media of the gutter, sleeping bench, slaughtering floor dumpsite, slaughtering table and roof of the abattoirs. Using standard methods, Presumptive identification of the bacterial isolates was carried out. An array of ten (10) conventional antibiotics was used to assay the antibiotic susceptibility characteristics of the bacterial isolates. Multiple antibiotic sensitivity index (MARI) was determined for isolated bacteria. At Onyearugbulem abattoir, the total Escherichia coli count ranged from 3.6×10 cfu/ml from the gutter and slaughtering table to 6.5×10 cfu/ml from the slaughtering floor, while the total bacterial count ranged from 1.34×102 cfu/ml from dumpsite to 2.55×102 cfu/ml from the gutter, the total coliform count ranged from 2.8× 10 cfu/ml from slaughtering floor to 4.1×10 cfu/ml from sleeping bench. Several bacteria were presumptively isolated. These include: Micrococcus sp., Bacillus sp., Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, Proteus sp., Enterobacter aerogenes and Aeromonas sp. Ciprofloxacin (10 µg) had an inhibitory effect on all the Gram positive bacterial isolates with the highest inhibitory activity on S. aureus at 24.00 mm, and the Gram negative bacteria with the highest inhibitory activity on E. coli at 21.00 mm. Micrococcus sp. had the highest MARI of 0.8. These findings reveal the presence of multiple-antibiotic resistant bacteria in Onyearugbulem and FUTA abattoirs’ atmosphere. There is therefore need for routine environmental sanitation of the slaughterhouses.

Terminalia ferdinandiana Fruit and Leaf Extracts Inhibit Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus Growth.

The development of multiple antibiotic-resistant bacteria has vastly depleted our repertoire of effective antibiotic chemotherapies. The development of multi-β-lactam-resistant strains are particularly concerning due to our previous reliance on this class of antibiotics because of their initial efficacy and broad-spectrum activity. With increases in extended-spectrum β-lactam-resistance and an expanded resistance to other classes of antibiotics, there is an urgent need for the development of effective new antibiotic therapies. Terminalia ferdinandiana is an endemic Australian plant known for its high antioxidant and tannin contents. T. ferdinandiana fruit and leaf extracts have strong antibacterial activity against a wide variety of bacterial pathogens. However, T. ferdinandiana extracts have not been tested against ESBL and MRSA antibiotic-resistant pathogens. An objective of this study was to screen T. ferdinandiana fruit and leaf extracts for bacterial growth inhibitory activity by disc diffusion assay against β-lactam-sensitive and -resistant E. coli strains and against methicillin-sensitive and -resistant S. aureus. The minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) was quantified by liquid dilution techniques. The fruit methanolic extract, as well as the methanolic, aqueous, and ethyl acetate leaf extracts strongly inhibited the growth of the MRSA, with MICs as low as 223 µg/mL. In contrast, the extracts were ineffective inhibitors of ESBL growth. Metabolomic fingerprint analysis identified a diversity and relative abundance of tannins, flavonoids, and terpenoids, several of which have been reported to inhibit MRSA growth in isolation. All extracts were nontoxic in the Artemia nauplii and HDF toxicity assays, further indicating their potential for medicinal use.

Do Global Regulators Hold the Key to Production of Bacterial Secondary Metabolites?

The emergence of multiple antibiotic resistant bacteria has pushed the available pool of antibiotics to the brink. Bacterial secondary metabolites have long been a valuable resource in the development of antibiotics, and the genus Burkholderia has recently emerged as a source of novel compounds with antibacterial, antifungal, and anti-cancer activities. Genome mining has contributed to the identification of biosynthetic gene clusters, which encode enzymes that are responsible for synthesis of such secondary metabolites. Unfortunately, these large gene clusters generally remain silent or cryptic under normal laboratory settings, which creates a hurdle in identification and isolation of these compounds. Various strategies, such as changes in growth conditions and antibiotic stress, have been applied to elicit the expression of these cryptic gene clusters. Although a number of compounds have been isolated from different Burkholderia species, the mechanisms by which the corresponding gene clusters are regulated remain poorly understood. This review summarizes the activity of well characterized secondary metabolites from Burkholderia species and the role of local regulators in their synthesis, and it highlights recent evidence for the role of global regulators in controlling production of secondary metabolites. We suggest that targeting global regulators holds great promise for the awakening of cryptic gene clusters and for developing better strategies for discovery of novel antibiotics.

Albicidin, a potent DNA gyrase inhibitor with clinical potential.

The emergence of multiple antibiotic-resistant bacteria is a serious global problem which requires the development of new effective antimicrobial therapeutics. Albicidin produced by the sugarcane pathogen Xanthomonas albilineans is a potent DNA gyrase inhibitor with inhibitory effects significantly better than most DNA gyrase inhibitors. Albicidin acts primarily by inhibiting the religation of the cleaved DNA intermediate during the gyrase catalytic sequence similar to quinolones. The clinical realization of albicidin has been hampered by limited production and its unsolved structure. In this review, the relationship between albicidin and sugarcane leaf-scald disease is described. Furthermore, the biosynthesis and resistance mechanisms of albicidin are discussed. Finally, recent efforts to solve the structure and produce albicidin in a heterologous host and chemically are summarized.

Synthesis of Some 5-(substituted benzylidene-2, 4-dioxothiazolidin-3-yl) benzoic Acid Derivatives by Conventional and Microwave-assisted Methods and Evaluation of their Potential as Antimicrobial Agents

<P>Background: Multiple antibiotic resistant bacteria represent a challenge in the treatment of infections. It is imperative, therefore, that new substances with antimicrobial properties should be searched to fight these microorganisms. Objective: A series of 5-benzylidene-2, 4-dioxothiazolidin-3-yl benzoic acid derivatives were synthesized and evaluated their antimicrobial potential. The compounds were synthesized by both conventional and microwave synthesizers. Methods: In this study, a series of 5-benzylidene-2, 4-dioxothiazolidin-3-yl benzoic acid derivatives were synthesized by Knoevenagel condensation of 2, 4-thiazolidinedione with substituted aryl aldehydes followed by substitution of 3-amino group with p-chlorobenzoic acid. All the synthesized compounds were characterized by spectral (FT-IR, mass and 1HNMR) and elemental analysis. The compounds were evaluated for their in-vitro antimicrobial activities against Gram-positive bacteria, Gram-negative bacteria and a fungal strain by agar well diffusion assay method and solid dilution method. Results: The compounds exhibited appreciable antimicrobial activity. Compound 4-(5-(2- chlorobenzylidene)-2, 4-dioxothiazolidin-3-yl)benzoic acid (3f) expressed potent antimicrobial activities against all of the microbial strains examined in this study with MIC values ranging between 0.6-0.8 µg/mL and diameter of the zone of inhibition between 17.2-19.5 mm at the concentration of 200 µg/mL. Conclusion: There was a marked decrease in the reaction time, under mild conditions through microwave synthesis wherein it presented a green approach towards syntheses of the thiazolidinedione derivatives. All compounds exhibited mild to moderate antimicrobial activity. The results of tested bioactive assay showed that the nature of the substituent on the phenyl ring significantly influenced the antimicrobial activity. Among the chloro, bromo and methoxy substituted derivatives, chloro derivative possessed the highest activity followed by bromo and then methoxy. The position of the substituents on the arylidene nucleus also affected the activity and it was found that generally ortho-substituted derivatives showed better antimicrobial activity than others.</P>

Antibacterial Assessment of Crude and Fractionated Extracts of Vernonia amygdalina Leaf against Multiple Antibiotic Resistant Bacteria of Wound Infection

This study was conducted to determine the antibacterial effect of crude and fractionated extracts of leaves of Vernonia amygdalina against multiple antibiotic resistant bacteria isolate from wounds. The bacteria isolates obtained are: Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeuroginosa, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Proteus mirabilis and Streptococcus pyogene; they were confirmed standard microbiological techniques. Extracts were prepared from the leaf of the plant using ethanol, chloroform, cold water and hot water. The antibacterial activities of the crude extracts were assayed using the agar well diffusion methods. Multiple antibiotic resistant of the isolates was confirmed in the six (6) isolates. The phytochemical screening revealed the presence of alkaloids, phenols and saponins. All the extract showed varying degrees of activities depending on the extract concentration and the extract solvent. Generally, ethanol rated best as the extraction solvent which was able to inhibit all isolates except K. pneumoniae and P. mirabilis, and inhibits S. aureus at 50 mg/ml with zones 6.997±0.003. The antibacterial efficacy of the extract increases with a corresponding increase in the extract concentration. The MBC values ranged from 50 - 400 mg/mL for all the extraction solvent, and this is very important for people who depend on the plant for their health care needs. Fra 1, 6, and 10 of the column fractions were able to inhibit with 8.997 ± 0.008 mm, 8.993 ± 0.012 mm and 9.007 ± 0.000 mm respectively. The functional groups are Alkene, alkane group, alkyl halides, N-H bend of amides and Alcohol. The leaf of Vernonia amgydalina can be used as a raw material for the production of new antibiotic to control multiple resistant bacteria.

Identification, Antagonistic Potentials and Plasmid Profiling of Micro-Organisms Associated with Termitarium and Macerated Dead Termites from Cashew Trees in Ibule-Soro, Akure Nigeria

This research was carried out to identify microorganisms associated with termitarium on cashew tree barks and macerated dead termites from Ibule-Soro, Akure, Nigeria. Pour plate technique was used for isolation, standard and conventional methods of cultural, morphological and biochemical characteristics were employed in the identification and characterization. Bacterial isolates such as Bacillus sp, Micrococcus sp, Corynebacterium sp, Streptococcus sp were identified, while fungi isolates such as Aspergilus niger, Fusarium solani and Penicillium nonatum were identified. The result of antimicrobial sensitivity patterns of the isolates showed that all the bacteria were susceptible to at least three of the antibiotics. However, Micrococcus sp and Bacillus sp were screened to be multiple antibiotic resistant isolates. Plasmid profiling of these multiple antibiotic resistant bacteria isolates were carried out to determine the size of the bacteria plasmids and genetic basis of their antimicrobial resistance. The isolates were cured of their plasmid and subjected to antibiotic treatments again to determine whether their susceptibility to antibiotic is chromosomal or extra-chromosomal. Antagonistic properties of the isolated bacteria and fungi were determined against known bacterial pathogens such as Staphylococus aureus, Shigella sp, Salmonella sp, and Escherichia coli, the result showed that only the fungus Penicillium notatum showed positive and mild antagonistic potential against the selected pathogens. Findings from this research showed the potentials of termite nest as reservoirs for beneficial microorganisms with great antagonistic properties.

Isolation and Characterization of Plasmid - Bearing Multiple Antibiotic Resistance Bacteria from Different Aquatic Sources in Akure, Nigeria

Aims: This study was designed to investigate the plasmid bearing multiple antibiotic resistant bacteria from different aquatic sources.
 Place and Duration of Study: This research work was carried out in Akure South Local Government Area of Ondo state, Nigeria between January and June, 2018.
 Methodology: The pathogenic bacteria associated with water samples collected from different sources in Akure, Nigeria were isolated and characterized. A total of 521 water samples were collected from sources such as wells, taps, streams, rivers, boreholes and rain. All the samples were subjected to presumptive, confirmed and completed tests to evaluate their microbiological quality. The microbial types in the samples were determined using standard microbiological techniques. All isolates obtained in this study were subjected to antibiotic sensitivity analysis and screened for Beta-lactamase production (ESBL). Plasmid profile analysis of the resistance isolates was carried out using standard method. Furthermore, post-curing of the plasmid mediated antibiotic resistance isolates was performed and data obtained were analyzed and presented using analysis of variance.
 Results: Bacterial isolates such as Acinetobacter baumanni, Citrobacter freundii, Escherichia coli, Enterobacter aerogenes, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Salmonella typhi, Salmonella typhimurum, Salmonella paratyphi, Shigella dysenteriae, Serratia marcescens, Proteus vulgaris and Vibrio cholerae were identified from the water samples. The isolate E. coli had the highest percentage distribution of 24.10% in well water and 26.19% in stream water while Salmonella species had the highest occurrence of 53.85% in rain water. The Beta-lactamase producing (ESBL) isolates were resistant to multiple antibiotics except Ciprofloxacin, Gentamycin and Pefloxacin that conferred antibacterial effect. Plasmid-gene profile analysis of the isolates revealed that S. typhimurium, K. pneumoniae, P. aeruginosa and P. vulgaris possess single plasmid each while only E. coli contain two plasmid bands. The post plasmid-curing antibiotic sensitivity test of the isolates revealed that the initial antibiotic resistance of the bacterial isolates were plasmid mediated.
 Conclusion: Findings from this study suggest the purification of water from these sources before consumption is important as most microbes found in these samples are potential pathogens that are capable of causing infectious diseases with multiple antibiotic resistant features.

Antibiotic Susceptibility of Bacteria Isolated from Abattoir Effluent-Impacted Tagangu River, Aliero, Kebbi State, North-Western Nigeria

This study aimed to evaluate the impact of abattoir effluent on microbiological quality of the receiving Tagangu River and the susceptibility of the isolates to commonly-used antibiotics. The most probable number (MPN) as well as the Kirby-Bauer method of antibiotic susceptibility test were used and demonstrated the total heterotrophic bacteria as well as Escherichia coli O157:H7 numbers in a total of 30 water samples collected over a period of three months at three strategic points of the river. In accordance with CLSI guidelines, four out of eight bacteria (Enterobacter sp., Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Proteus vulgaris and Citrobacter sp.) isolated, demonstrated multiple antibiotic resistance (MAR) against at least three out of septrin, chloramphenicol, amoxicillin, augmentin, gentamicin, tarivid and streptomycin. All the isolates (Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Enterobacter sp., Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Proteus vulgaris, Citrobacter sp., Serratia marcescens and Aerobacter aerogenes) showed either high or intermediate susceptibility to sparfloxacin, ciprofloxacin and pefloxacin. The findings indicated that the river has been heavily polluted with the effluent discharges and did not meet any of the WHO guidelines for natural water sources fit for irrigation or other domestic purposes. As such, indiscriminate discharge of abattoir effluent could impact on the microbiological quality and promote increased incidence of multiple antibiotic resistant bacteria in a receiving river.