Multimedia Learning Environment Research Articles

Eye Movement Modelling Examples as Cues to Guide Attention and Improve Learning in Short or Long Animations

ABSTRACTBackgroundBoth eye movement modelling examples (EMMEs) and cues guide attention and improve learning in multimedia learning environments. EMME can act as a special form of cue. However, no studies have directly examined whether EMME would be superior to visual cues.ObjectiveThe study was to investigate whether there were advantages of EMME over cues on visual attention, learning outcomes and subjective perception in a multimedia environment.MethodIn Experiment 1, 67 college students were randomly assigned to the EMME group, cue group and control group and learned from animations explaining the synaptic transmission. In Experiment 2, we replicated Experiment 1 using longer learning material. Seventy‐one college students were randomly assigned to three groups (EMME, cue and control) and learned from animations explaining the process of cell division.Results and ConclusionsIn Experiment 1, results indicated both EMMEs and cues guide attention and facilitate learning. Regarding learning outcomes and subjective perception, learners did not benefit more from EMMEs than cues. Eye movement indicators showed that EMMEs were better than cues. In Experiment 2, results were consistent with Experiment 1.ImplicationsThis study is the first to compare EMMEs and cues. We found that EMMEs and cues were equivalent in producing effects on learning outcomes and subjective perception. EMMEs were superior to cues in guiding attention and conveying strategies, as indicated by eye movements. Both theoretical and practical implications could be drawn.

The Impact of Multimedia Learning Models on Listening Comprehension: A Systematic Review of Self-Efficacy and Technology Integration

The purpose of this systematic review is to examine the impact of multimedia learning models on listening comprehension, with a particular focus on the roles of self-efficacy and technology integration. The study utilizes the PRISMA methodology to ensure rigor in the systematic review process, synthesizing research findings from 2019 to 2024. Results show that multimedia learning models significantly improve listening comprehension by providing diverse and engaging methods, aligning with Mayer’s cognitive theory of multimedia learning. Additionally, self-efficacy and technology integration were identified as critical moderating factors, enhancing both learning outcomes and learner confidence. This review contributes to the development of effective multimedia learning environments, offering valuable insights for educators, instructional designers, and policymakers.

Which ERP components are effective in measuring cognitive load in multimedia learning? A meta-analysis based on relevant studies.

The open and generative nature of multimedia learning environments tends to cause cognitive overload in learners, and cognitive load is difficult for researchers to observe objectively because of its implicit and complex nature. Event-related potentials (ERP), a method of studying potential changes associated with specific events or stimuli by recording the electroencephalogram (EEG), has become an important method of measuring cognitive load in cognitive psychology. Although many studies have relied on ERP output measurements to compare different levels of cognitive load in multimedia learning, the results of the effect of cognitive load on ERP have been inconsistent. In this study, we used a meta-analysis of evidence-based research to quantitatively analyze 17 experimental studies to quantitatively evaluate which ERP component (amplitude) is most sensitive to cognitive load. Forty five effect sizes from 26 studies involving 360 participants were calculated. (1) The results of the studies analyzed in subgroups indicated high level effect sizes for P300 and P200 (2) Analyses of moderating variables for signal acquisition did not find that different methods of signal acquisition had a significant effect on the measurement of cognitive load (3) Analyses of moderating variables for task design found that a task system with feedback was more convenient for the measurement of cognitive load, and that designing for 3 levels of cognitive load was more convenient for the measurement of cognitive load than for 2 levels of cognitive load. (4) Analyses of continuous moderating variables for subject characteristics did not find significant effects of age, gender, or sample size on the results.

The influence of content-relevant background color as a retrieval cue on learning with multimedia

Color has been investigated as a signaling cue in multimedia learning environments, guiding the learner’s attention and as an emotional design element, increasing the learner’s motivation and, thus, improving learning outcomes. Retrieval cues (e.g., visual cues, odor, sound) facilitating memory retrieval have been primarily investigated in learning simple word lists. Contrary to additional retrieval cues, the background color is a component that is always present in multimedia learning environments. This study investigates if the background color of learning texts as retrieval cue can enhance learning and affect cognitive load and motivation. Hypotheses are formulated according to the Cognitive-Affective Theory of Learning with Multimedia (CATLM) and in the setting of context-dependent memory, specifically the Information, associated Context, and Ensemble Theory (ICE). A 2 (related vs. unrelated background color) × 2 (with vs. without colors in the learning test) -factorial between-subjects design with an additional control group was utilized. For the control group, the background of the learning texts and learning questions was white. In total, 191 native German speakers were randomly assigned to the five groups. The findings indicate that relying solely on the background color as a retrieval cue is insufficient. Instead of facilitating memory retrieval, the background color remains context information stored separately from the item information. However, the results should be approached carefully as learning outcomes may be subject to ceiling and floor effects.

The effect of an agent tutor’s integration of cognitive and emotional gestures on cognitive load, motivation, and achievement

This study proposes that the gestures of an agent tutor in a multimedia learning environment can generate positive and negative emotions in learners and influence their cognitive processes. To achieve this, we developed and integrated positive and negative agent tutor gestures in a multimedia learning environment directed by cognitive gestures. The effects of emotion type on cognition were examined in terms of cognitive load, learning motivation, and achievement. The subjects were 46 university students in Gyeonggi Province, South Korea. The students were divided into three learner groups: cognition, cognition + negative emotion, and cognition + positive emotion. The learners watched a tutorial lecture on the Notion note-taking app by an agent tutor. Data analysis was conducted using one-way ANOVA to determine the cognitive load, learning motivation, and achievement. The results showed that the positive emotion design was more effective in terms of intrinsic cognitive load, learning motivation, and achievement but had a higher extrinsic cognitive load. However, even the negative + passive group showed more positive learning than the cognition group. Although this study focused on gestures by an agent tutor, it implies that such gestures in multimedia learning contexts must be informed by emotional as well as cognitive design to provide a more meaningful learning experience.

The effects of segmentation on cognitive load, vocabulary learning and retention, and reading comprehension in a multimedia learning environment

BackgroundSegmentation is a common pedagogical approach in multimedia learning, but its effects on cognitive processes and learning outcomes have yet to be comprehensively explored. Understanding the role of segmentation is crucial, as it has the potential to influence the way instructional materials are designed and delivered in digital learning environments.ObjectivesThis research aims to fill this gap by examining the impact of segmentation on cognitive load, vocabulary acquisition, retention, and reading comprehension in a multimedia learning context.MethodologyParticipants were selected from two language schools in Zhengzhou through a multi-stage random sampling method. Ninety teenage students were randomly assigned to six experimental groups. The study utilized a 2 × 3 factorial design to examine segmentation and textual augmentation effects. Four assessment instruments were employed: a Reading Comprehension Test, a Vocabulary Assessment Test, a Cognitive Load Assessment Scale, and a Prior Knowledge Test. The experiment comprised four stages: pre-test, Instruction, post-test, and follow-up. Data analysis was performed using SPSS 22 software, involving descriptive statistics, one-way, and multi-way analysis of variance.ResultsResults indicated that high segmentation significantly impacts cognitive load, vocabulary learning, retention, and reading comprehension across various aspects of multimedia learning. In essence, segmentation reduces cognitive load, supports learning efficiency, and facilitates more profound understanding, vocabulary learning, and retention.Conclusions and implicationsHigh segmentation in multimedia learning significantly impacts cognitive load, vocabulary learning, comprehension, and retention. Educators should prioritize segmentation for more effective and engaging e-learning experiences.

Effectiveness of an Authentic-Based Multimedia Learning Environment on Students’ Engagement and Performance in South-West Nigerian Higher Institutions

Students’ relationships to the curriculum and their cooperation with peers and instructors during the learning processes have both benefited by engagement. The main objective of the study aims to examine the effect of students’ performance and engagement in an authentic-based multimedia learning Environment. The study adopted Quasi experimental design with a purposive sample of 90 undergraduates’ students from a public university in South-west Nigeria. The students were furtherly distributed into 45 students each for experimental and control group. The data collected through student engagement questionnaire and achievement test were analysed to descriptive and inferential analysis (paired t-test) with the use of pre-test and post-test to describe the students’ performance test (SPT). The results of the study showed the significant effect of authentic-based multimedia learning environment on students’ performance level, cognitive and behavioral engagement level. The findings indicated that students perform better and increased their cognitive thinking skills to improve their interaction towards the utilization of multimedia in the learning process. Moreover, it was found out that cognitive and behavioral engagements were positively allied to the student academic performance. The instructors and management of the higher institution should have strong collaboration to provide more opportunities for the students to interact with different course activities in the learning environment to maximize their performance and engagement levels.

Evaluating Computer Interactions and Infographics Usability: Analyzing Individual’s Performance through Viewing Patterns

Computer interactions and infographics are important to represent and communicate complex information. The impact of visualization and its effect on learning the results of interaction with multimedia instruction reveals a great deal. Eye tracking is the method used to examine the graphical processing. Therefore, the present study aims to examine computer interactions and infographic usability by conducting verbal and visual performances test on undergraduates. The 62 undergraduate females were recruited as the study sample and presented the video of Napoleon's march to Moscow. This study identifies how long, where, and in what order or when accompanied with text and what’s the participant's pattern on Minard maps. The performance test scores and the verbal visual learning style rating included the visual and verbal variables. The tools that are used to enhance the results are heat maps, cluster and scan paths. The 62 undergraduate females results shows that there is a fundamental difference in verbal and visual learning participants in viewing pattern on the heat map. The heat maps, clusters, and scan paths were combined for the distinct groups to provide a more complete picture of viewing patterns using Tobii Studio Software. The study results indicate that visual content was remembered by most of the participants and also indicated that the visual effects in multimedia learning environments and can be utilized to improve the multimedia design. Therefore, the study concluded that infographic and computer interactions are an effective approach for enhancing the understanding and usability of students.

Recognizing and Relating to the Race/Ethnicity and Gender of Animated Pedagogical Agents

This study examined how well people can recognize and relate to animated pedagogical agents of varying ethnicities/races and genders. For both Study 1 (realistic-style agents) and Study 2 (cartoon-style agents), participants viewed brief video clips of virtual agents of varying racial/ethnic categories and gender types and then identified their race/ethnicity and gender and rated how human-like and likable the agent appeared. Participants were highly accurate in identifying Black and White agents but were less accurate for Asian, Indian, and Hispanic agents. Participants were accurate in recognizing gender differences. Participants rated all types of agents as moderately human-like, except for White agents. Likability ratings were lowest for White and male agents. The same pattern of results was obtained across two independent studies with different participants and different onscreen agents, which indicates that the results are not solely due to one specific set of agents. Consistent with the Media Equation Hypothesis and the Alliance Hypothesis, this work shows that people are sensitive to the race/ethnicity and gender of onscreen agents and relate to them differently. These findings have implications for how to design animated pedagogical agents for improved multimedia learning environments in the future and serve as a crucial first step in highlighting the possibility and feasibility of incorporating diverse onscreen virtual agents into educational computer software.

Analysis of multimedia technology and mobile learning in English teaching in colleges and universities

Abstract Multimedia and mobile learning are effective teaching tools because of their many useful characteristics. Transmission of educational material to students is facilitated by technology in both multimedia and mobile learning environments. A more interesting and engaging learning experience may be achieved by combining text, graphics, music, video, and animation. Media-rich classrooms are often referred to as “multimedia learning.” In contrast, students who use mobile learning may access their courses from any place with an internet connection and a mobile device such as a smartphone or a tablet. Whenever this involves commonplace technological needs, its cellular gadget and notably its clever telephone take the cake. Smartphone gadgets have a very wide range of potential applications and uses. Some ethical considerations are preventing media from reinforcing stereotypes or prejudice in the communities where they are utilized. Student information are gathered and used in a way that protects their privacy, with materials required for students to engage in mobile learning, and respecting intellectual property and copyright regulations while using multimedia language-learning tools. This importance of learning cannot be overstated but when such results come, mobile devices have increasingly been used in schools. This question of whether mobile devices have an impact on education remains open. Because of such “mobile gaining knowledge,” along with an overall phrase describing researching where different devices could be utilized in combination to enhance schooling, mobile devices had become more popular. Because today’s kids utilize their mobile devices frequently, studies on their effect on word learning are immediately required. This pilot research seeks to understand why school learners think via smartphone-based L2 exercises. In particular, this study collects data about several plenty applications using cell phones in linguistic research. Two hundred and ninety-four college children from one top Turkish institution participated in this research. This project uses some hybrid reporting models and relies on description analysis over its methodology. Their results show that users place one high value on obtaining ready accessibility to materials while studying some foreign language. Respondents not only remarked about their cellphone’s portability but also proposed new applications for enhancing their learning in other countries.

Two types of redundancy in multimedia learning: a literature review.

Regarding the redundancy effect in multimedia learning environments, more consistency is needed in the theoretical assumptions and investigation of this effect. Current research lacks a comprehensive account of different redundant scenarios in which materials facilitate or inhibit learning and provides little conceptual guidance on how learning processes are affected by different types of redundancy. Theoretical assumptions refer to redundancy as a contentual overlap of information provided by the learning material; in this case, processing duplicated information strains the learners' limited cognitive capacities. Other assumptions refer to the role of processing limitations in working memory channels, including separate processing for visual and verbal information. In this case, an ineffective combination of sources leads to an overload of the limited working memory capacity. This paper reviews empirical research on the redundancy effect (63 studies) and classifies two types of redundancy: (1) content redundancy, and (2) working memory channel redundancy. From an instructional psychology perspective, the analyses reveal four different implementations of redundant scenarios: (1) adding narration to visualizations, (2) adding written text to visualizations, (3) adding written text to narration, and (4) adding written text to narrated visualizations. Regarding the effects of the two redundancy types within these scenarios, analyses indicate positive effects of content redundancy (affected by learners' prior knowledge), negative effects of working memory channel redundancy (regarding visualizations and written text), and positive effects of working memory channel redundancy (regarding narration and written text). Moreover, results point to factors that might moderate the effect of redundancy and illustrate interactions with existing multimedia effects. Overall, this review provides an overview of the state of empirical research and reveals that the consideration of both redundancy types provides further explanations in this field of research.

Grade-3 Learners’ Performance and Conceptual Understanding Development in Technology-Enhanced Teaching With Interactive Mathematics Software

<p style="text-align: justify;">This study presented the effect of interactive mathematics (IM) software assisted-teaching on primary three learners' conceptual understanding and performance. The cognitive theory of multimedia learning (CTML) supported the quasi-experimental design of this study drawing on IM software features that fit a multimedia tool for effective learning. This study used a sample of 138 lower primary learners. Learners’ test scores and examples of their work provided data to be analyzed. Learners' conceptual understanding was measured using the percentage of learners who performed a particular item and analyzed using sample learners' work while the overall performance was measured using the mean class scores. From the data analysis, IM-assisted teaching influenced conceptual understanding and performance based on a .05 p-value, the effect size of significance, and learning gains. The analysis of learners’ workings revealed different errors in addition, subtraction, division, and multiplication, which were remarkably reduced in the post-test by IM-supported teaching. This evidenced conceptual understanding development by IM-supported teaching. The study suggested the integration of IM in the Rwandan Competence-Based curriculum and its use as an instructional tool in teaching and learning mathematics at the primary level. Besides, it was recommended that Rwanda Education Board support teachers in developing basic computer skills to effectively create and monitor a multimedia learning environment for effective learning. Furthermore, further similar research would improve the literature about interactive technologies in supporting quality mathematics delivery and outcomes.</p>

English Language Learning Students Second Language Acquisition: Cognitive Factors and Supporting Strategies

Second language acquisition is learning a second language after a first language is already established. Cognitive load means the amount of information that working memory can hold at one time. As working memory has limit capacity and could be influenced by various factors, instructional teaching should avoid overloading it. This paper analyzed three cognitive factors which significantly influence English language learning (ELL) students in the process of their Second language acquisition (SLA). Second language acquisition a highly influenced by negative language transfer between Chinese and English. Redundancy of unnecessary learning information and transiency of spoken information adding additional learning process in working memory that don't positive contribute to learning. Due to the three main factors, several strategies have been developed to support English language learners second language acquisition. Teachers could create an English-learning friendly classroom by encouraging positive learning attitude and increasing the English language input. Provide a multimedia learning environment, reduce the unnecessary information, use dual-channel learning theory and choose appropriate approach based on individual needs are some other strategies that teachers could use to encourage students second language acquisition in classroom setting. Therefore, this paper explained the cognitive learning process of second language acquisition and provide several suggestions of teaching strategies to encourage ELL students language learning.

The Efficacy of Authentic-based Multimedia Learning on Students' Performance, Cognitive and Behavioral Engagement Level in Nigerian Higher Institutions

Authentic learning is a programme designed to connect what students learn in school to real-world issues. Getting students actively engaged and challenging their understanding through authentic-based applications multimedia learning is one strategy that could be employed in designing an educational practice to expose students to real-world issues that could improve their cognitive and behavioral engagement. This study aimed to evaluate the effects of authentic-based multimedia learning environment on students’ performance, cognitive and behavioral engagement level. Experimental study involving treatment group was conducted on 90 accounting students’ year (2) in Ekiti State University, Nigeria, using purposive sampling techniques. The instruments used were questionnaire questions on the cognitive and behavioral engagement level and achievement-test scores (pre-test and posttest questions) on the performance test between the pre-test score (M=20.44, SD =10.19) and the posttest score (M=30.49, SD =10.56) in the control group and the pre-test score (M=16.96, SD =7.18) and the posttest score (M=74.44, SD =12.57) in the treatment group. The findings showed that the authentic-based multimedia learning strategy had a positive effect on the students’ performance and the engagement level. Nevertheless, the results also suggest that the effect of using authentic-based multimedia learning should involve the engagement of students in the real-world learning situations in tackling challenges. The implications of the results shows that authentic-based multimedia learning strategy enhances students’ performance, cognitive and behavioral engagement in the learning environment.

How do students’ achievement goals relate to learning from well-designed instructional videos and subsequent exam performance?

Well-designed instructional videos are powerful tools for helping students learn and prompting students to use generative strategies while learning from videos further bolsters their effectiveness. However, little is known about how individual differences in motivational factors, such as achievement goals, relate to how students learn within multimedia environments that include instructional videos and generative strategies. Therefore, in this study, we explored how achievement goals predicted undergraduate students’ behaviors when learning with instructional videos that required students to answer practice questions between videos, as well as how those activities predicted subsequent unit exam performance one week later. Additionally, we tested the best measurement models for modeling achievement goals between traditional confirmatory factor analysis and bifactor confirmatory factor analysis. The bifactor model fit our data best and was used for all subsequent analyses. Results indicated that stronger mastery goal endorsement predicted performance on the practice questions in the multimedia learning environment, which in turn positively predicted unit exam performance. In addition, students’ time spent watching videos positively predicted practice question performance. Taken together, this research emphasizes the availing role of adaptive motivations, like mastery goals, in learning from instructional videos that prompt the use of generative learning strategies.

A Review of the Role of the School Spatial Environment in Promoting the Visual Health of Minors.

Rising childhood myopia rate has detrimental health consequences that pose a considerable challenge to health systems. The school spatial environment, which is where students are for the longest period of time, has a high health value for myopia systematic intervention. While research has demonstrated associations between physical daylight environments, medical gene and visual health, the literature currently lacks a synthesis of evidence that will act as a spatially-organized resource for school designers. This study is based on literature from the period 2000-2022 and has been taken from the Web of Science, scopus, Medline and CNKI core collection database. Collaboration, literature co-citation and quantitative and qualitative analysis, in addition to keyword co-occurrence are adopted to conduct a visual health research review. The results indicate that intensive near work activity (as a risk factor) and longer time spent outdoors (as a protective factor), are involved in visual health factors. Two main research themes are obtained and relate to: (1) The environment of visual work behavior (especially the near work learning environment) and adaptable multimedia learning environment; and (2) the environment of outdoor exposure behavior. Furthermore, with the variation of educational demands, models and concepts, there are different demands for near work behavior, and this study makes an important contribution by pointing to two future research directions, including the accurate and controllable environment of near work behavior, which operate in accordance with various educational mode requirements and the active design of the environment of outdoor exposure behavior. In referring to differences between regions and countries, as well as the development of the educational environment, it provides insight into how these demands can be controlled.

The power of affective pedagogical agent and self-explanation in computer-based learning

The goal of the current study was to investigate the effects of affective pedagogical agent (PA) and student-generated explanation on learners' affective processing, visual attention, and learning outcomes during a video lesson. In a 2 (affective pedagogical agent: positive PA vs. neutral PA) × 2 (generative learning strategy: self-explanation vs. re-study) between-subjects design, participants watched an animation on synaptic transmission from a multimedia lesson that was either delivered by a positive PA or a neutral PA. After watching the video, students either generated a verbal explanation or rewatched the video. All students’ eye movements were tracked during learning and then took learning outcome tests. The results showed that: (a) students who learned with a positive PA paid more attention to relevant elements of the materials and performed better on learning outcomes than those who learned with a neutral PA; (b) self-explanation facilitated visual processing and learning outcomes; and (c) positive PA accompanying self-explanation increased intrinsic motivation and resulted in best learning performance. The findings support the use of a positive PA to design multimedia learning environments and the use of self-explanation strategy to engage students in generative processing activities. Moreover, students benefit most from positive PA and then generating an oral explanation, which demonstrates the importance of combining instructional design features and learners-generated learning activity in computer-based learning environments.

Identifying what works for whom: Implementation outcomes following iLookOut, a child abuse identification and referral training program.

iLookOut, a web-based child abuse training for early childcare professionals (ECPs), has been shown to improve knowledge and attitudes related to correctly identifying and reporting suspected cases of child abuse. The overarching goal of the present study is to examine "what works for whom" for iLookOut in order to identify strategies for optimizing learner outcomes. This prospective study enrolled 12,705 ECPs who completed iLookOut (November 2014-December 2018). We used structural equation models to test whether learner demographic and professional characteristics were differentially associated with implementation outcomes (i.e., acceptability and appropriateness) and whether these mediated subsequent indicators of training effectiveness (i.e., gains in knowledge). Consistent with previous research, individuals with lower baseline knowledge scores showed greater knowledge gains (β = -.57; p < .001). Greater knowledge gains were seen for learners who reported higher acceptability (β = .08; p < .001) or appropriateness (β = .14; p < .001). Implementation outcomes strongly associated with knowledge gains included acceptability for female learners and appropriateness for learners who had not completed high school or had >15 years of experience in childcare settings. Where mediation was found, for the majority of groups, appropriateness emerged as the driving mediator. Implementation outcomes emerged as important drivers of knowledge change for most groups. The iLookOut Core Training's use of a multimedia learning environment, video-based storylines, and game-based techniques were endorsed by learners and correlated with increases in knowledge. Future work should explore why aspects of the iLookOut training are rated as less acceptable or appropriate by some groups and what changes would improve efficacy for low performing learners.

Attention mediates the effect of emotional arousal on learning outcomes in multimedia learning: an eye-tracking study

Recent findings from psychological studies have shown that emotional arousal improves human memory. However, more evidence is necessary if these results are generalisable to multimedia learning environments. Considering these needs, the study has the goal to examine the effect of emotional arousal on multimedia learning. Fifty-seven participants were presented with instructional materials with either high- or low-arousing words and pictures in an experimental study. The eye movements of participants were recorded while they studied the instructional materials to examine the online processes during learning. The results suggest that emotional arousal enhanced recall and transfer scores. The eye-tracking results demonstrate that emotional arousal attracted attention. The results of the mediation analysis suggest that fixation time on emotional pictures as an indicator of attention mediated the relationship between emotional arousal and learning outcomes. The findings show the importance of the guidance of attention by emotional multimedia elements for learning.

Learning vocabulary through dual-subtitled viewing: the impact of different ILH-based interventions

With the rise of computer-assisted online learning tools such as the Language Reactor, advanced captioning options such as dual subtitles (i.e. simultaneous display of on-screen texts in the first language and the second/foreign language) have gained much attention. However, little is known about how dual-subtitled viewing may be optimised to foster second/foreign language learning in multimedia learning environments. In this study, I extended Laufer and Hulstijn (Applied Linguistics, 22(1), 1–26, 2001) Involvement Load Hypothesis (ILH) to the context of audiovisual input and examined the effects of dual-subtitled viewing under multiple ILH-based interventions on vocabulary learning. University Chinese-speaking low-intermediate EFL learners (n = 72) were divided into four groups and exposed to dual-subtitled videos with varying ILH-based interventions. Using a counterbalanced 4 × 4 experimental design, I compared learners’ immediate vocabulary gains and retention of target words under four different treatments across four experimental sessions, including interventions featuring an involvement load of 4 (moderate need + search + strong evaluation), an involvement load of 3 (moderate need + search + moderate evaluation), an involvement load of 2 (moderate need + search), and an involvement load of 0 (absence of need, search or evaluation). The approach to data analysis was twofold: between-groups and within-groups. ANOVA results revealed that vocabulary gains were the highest when learners viewed dual-subtitled videos under treatments with higher involvement loads. The article ends with a consideration of practical and theoretical implications for language learning through this form of audiovisual multimedia learning condition.