Multilingual Policy Research Articles

TRILINGUALISM - A UNIQUE FORMULA OF THE STATE LANGUAGE POLICY IN THE REPUBLIC OF KAZAKHSTAN

The article deals with the implementation of the trilingual policy in the country, describes the activities carried out in this direction in Kazakhstan, provides the regulatory framework for trilingualism. According to the author, at present in the country, along with the Kazakh language, young people are also fluent in English, which contributes to becoming a competitive specialist in the future in the context of globalization. The article also discusses the features of the introduction of trilingual education in the Republic of Kazakhstan, as well as features of the introduction and implementation of the policy of multilingualism in the field of education. A person who is fluent in three languages ​​feels comfortable in the modern world, a wide range of information is available to him, the areas of education and work are expanding. Therefore, in Kazakhstan, multilingualism began to be considered as a way of communication between people. The introduction of trilingualism in Kazakhstan is the call of the times. The idea of introducing trilingualism is connected with the need to develop mutual understanding between people.

The rural linguistic landscape of Banat

Abstract While the main body of linguistic landscape (LL) research still focuses on urban areas, more recent works have broadened the scope and conceptualisation of LL to include rural spaces. However, these works almost exclusively examine the Global North or the Global South. Suspended somewhere between the Global North and the Global South, the so-called Global East, to which Southeast Europe belongs, is for the most part excluded not just from notions of globality, but also from LL studies. The aim of this paper is to redirect the focus of LL research to a rural area in the Global East, namely, the village Ečka in the Serbian Banat, a region with a specific and lengthy history of multilingualism. We hold that the typologies used for the study of urban LL cannot yield relevant results if applied to rural LL. Our study is based on data collected in 2020 and 2021 during six field trips to Ečka which resulted in more than 300 photographs containing inscriptions in different languages and scripts. Furthermore, we conducted participant observation by recording interviews and collecting walking narratives from locals in Serbian or Romanian. Our study confirmed that there is a gap between the official multiculturalism and multilingualism policy as declared and implemented by top-down agents and the gradual transition to monolingualism and monoscriptalism at the bottom-up level. Therefore, instead of the classical top-down and bottom-up distinction, we propose seeing the village space from a two-fold perspective: the synchronic LL, which mirrors the current use of languages, language prestige and language policies, and the memorial LL, which is a chronicle of the multilingualism of past generations and welcomes a diachronic perspective of LL.

СОЦІОЛІНГВІСТИЧНІ ПАРАМЕТРИ БАГАТОМОВНОСТІ: ЄВРОПЕЙСЬКІ ЗАСАДИ Й УКРАЇНСЬКА ДІЙСНІСТЬ

The concept of multilingualism has gained considerable spread in linguistic and political discourse. It causes the need to concrete the sociolinguistic parameters of the term in the context of the Ukrainian language situation, taking into account the experience of pan-European theories and practices. The feasibility of the research is also caused by the expansion of approaches to the problems of multilingualism in the 21st century and some differences in the interpretation of multilingualism in different countries, which is caused by differences in implementation of policy and practice of multilingualism in different state and regional contexts. Theoretical approaches to the definition of multilingualism and the classification of its types allow us to consider the policy of multilingualism and the practice of multilingualism in the coordinates of social types of languages - state (official), minority, immigrant, foreign. This research is also an attempt to give some answers for questions: “What is the difference between multilingual society and multilingual state?”, “How does the practice of multilingualism influence on language policy or language policy on language practices of multilingual territories?”, “How do the concepts of language diversity, multilingual communication, plurilingualism and language education differentiate in sociolinguistic concept of multilingualism?” The sociolinguistic dimension of multilingualism is defined in terms of systemconceptual connections: multilingualism and globalization, multilingualism and territorial linguistic identity, multilingualism and the status of languages, multilingualism and the functionality of languages, multilingualism and language education. The description of the language situation in Ukraine is presented in the coordinates of the theory of social and institutional multilingualism as a monolingual state with bilingual and multilingual territories. The basic sociolinguistic concept of multilingualism is proposed; it is based on the distinction between the policy of multilingualism and the practice of multilingualism and the principles of coexistence of linguistic identities and linguistic practices of individuals and communities.

The Perceived Importance of Language Skills in Europe—The Case of Swedish Migrants in France

In a European context, where member states of the European Union share a common language policy, multilingualism and foreign language (FL) learning are strongly promoted. The goal is that citizens learn two FLs in addition to their first language(s) (L1). However, it is unclear to what extent the multilingual policy is relevant in people’s lives, at a time when the English language is established as a lingua franca. This survey-based study contributes insights into the relevance of the EU multilingual policy in an intra-European migration context, by focusing on Swedish migrants (n = 199) in France, who are L1 speakers of Swedish. We investigated the perceived importance of skills in FL French, FL English, and L1 Swedish, for professional and personal life. The quantitative analyses showed that participants perceive skills in French and in English to be equally important for professional life, whereas skills in Swedish were perceived to be less important. For personal life, skills in French were perceived as the most important, followed by skills in English, and then Swedish. In conclusion, the European multilingual language policy appears to be reflected in Europeans’ lives, at least in the case of Swedish migrants in France.

Culture, language, and multilingual education:

INTRODUCTION. In a multilingual classroom, teachers play an essential role in encouraging and fostering a multilingual attitude and behavior at the school, as their actions can considerably influence their students. This study is intended to explore the teachers’ attitudes towards multilingual policy and multilingual pedagogy. Therefore, theories on language educational policy and multilingual pedagogy and practices are discussed as guidance. METHODS. The study used a survey research design, and the questionnaires were sent online to gather the data. The participants were 100 foreign language teachers who teach at high schools in an Indonesian province. They were asked to voluntarily respond to three main themes: Multilingual education knowledge, language education policy in Indonesia, and multilingual classroom practices in the questionnaire in the questionnaire. T-test and MANOVA were employed to investigate the difference between variables. RESULTS. The descriptive and inferential analyses revealed that the attitudes towards multilingual pedagogy implemented in Indonesia were almost uniform across different foreign language teachers having a positive attitude. Out of 18 statements, the high mean scores are related to the belief that learning another language could foster openness to other people’s language and culture and learning different languages can build students’ ability to use languages within a context. DISCUSSION. Taking for granted that participants have different ages, teaching experience, gender, and foreign language, there is no significant difference in their attitude towards multilingual education and practices. Most of the participants of this study believe that multilingual education contributes to some benefit for their students. Yet, the results also show that participants also view that the government has neither provided nor accommodated proper support for multilingual education.

Bridging the ‘dual lives’: school socialization of young bi/multilinguals in the eyes of EFL teachers

ABSTRACT Over the last decade, teachers in Poland have observed an increase in the number of primary school children with bi/multilingual and culturally diverse backgrounds. Regardless of their complex experiences, they face many cultural, social, linguistic and educational challenges upon entering primary school. English teachers are often at the forefront, helping them navigate through the intricacy of their seemingly ‘dual lives’ (Li and Zhu. 2013. “Translanguaging Identities and Ideologies: Creating Transnational Space Through Flexible Multilingual Practices Amongst Chinese University Students in the UK.” Applied Linguistics 34 (5): 516–535, 531). The paper presents the results of an interview study among 23 Polish EFL teachers with a view towards investigating Polish EFL teachers’ experiences and ways of working with bi/multilingual children directed at child integration and socialization into the new environment. The collected data was coded following the content analysis approach (Krippendorff. 2003. Content Analysis: An Introduction to its Methodology. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage) and analysed from the ecological perspective (see Bronfenbrenner. 1979. The Ecology of Human Development: Experiments by Nature and Design. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press; van Lier. 2004. The Ecology and Semiotics of Language Learning. Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers), whereby successful child socialization was observed to be dependent on an intricate network of interrelated factors. The role of the exosystem, i.e. the school system, has been found the least supportive due to the absence of a comprehensive multilingual policy, and lack of teacher support via teacher training, all of which have been concluded to be of urgent need in the emergent multilingual setting.

The Relationship between Portuguese and Indigenous Languages in the Community of Portuguese Language Countries: An Existential Sociolinguistics Perspective

Abstract
 
 This study analyzes the relationship between Portuguese and indigenous or regional and national languages in the Community of Portuguese Language Countries (CPLP). It proposes a multilingual language policy and the implementation of the political legitimacy of linguistic minority rights (PLLMR) as a demonstration of a decolonized treatment of languages other than Portuguese (LOTP) in the community. Using the theoretical framework of existential sociolinguistics and the method of philosophical reflection, this study addresses the question of how can CPLP implement multilingual policy in its governmental processes and sustain its Lusophone international politico-economic and sociocultural organization identity. In conclusion, it argues that the implementation of multilingual policy will demonstrate a decolonized governmental attitude, a sustainable existential intercultural mindset (SEIM), and a global intercultural citizenship in fostering existential justice rather than an anti-humanist governance or what I call econotechnocracy.

Indigenous language revitalization using TEK-nology: how can traditional ecological knowledge (TEK) and technology support intergenerational language transmission?

ABSTRACT Indigenous communities worldwide face threats to their linguistic and epistemic heritage with the unabated spread of dominant colonial languages and global monocultures, such as English and the neoliberal, imperialistic worldview. There is considerable strain on the relatively few Elders and speakers of Indigenous languages to maintain cultures and languages decimated by centuries of colonialism. One shared and common goal for Indigenous language revitalization initiatives is to reinvigorate intergenerational language transmission in the home, the community and beyond in as many ways as possible. How can technology support this nuanced process and existing initiatives? Following an Indigenous research paradigm, this article explores an immersive, community-led Indigenous language acquisition approach – TEK-nology (traditional ecological knowledge [TEK] and technology) – to support Anishinaabemowin language revitalization and reclamation (ALRR) in the Canadian context. The TEK-nology pilot project identifies (1) the impacts of centring Indigenous worldviews in technology, language learning and teaching; (2) how we can develop and co-create technology-enabled, culturally and environmentally responsive pedagogies and (3) the important implications of decolonizing language education for Indigenous and majority languages. The TEK-nology pilot project demonstrates how community-led, relational technology and immersive Indigenous language acquisition can support ALRR and foster more equitable multicultural and multilingual education practice and policy.

Some Characteristics of the Conference Interpreting Profession in Malta and the Republic of Ireland: a Comparative Overview

With the rise of multilingual international organisations over the past eight decades, the conference interpreting profession has developed accordingly. In the case of the European Union (EU), the range of official languages now includes less widely spoken languages such as Maltese and Irish. Through examination of the domestic professional landscapes of the conference interpreting professions in two EU member states, Malta and the Republic of Ireland, this exploratory contribution offers a comparative overview of the historical and contemporary development of the domestic conference interpreting profession in both countries, together with contextual information regarding multilingualism policy and the specific cases of Maltese and Irish as official languages of the EU. As such, core details regarding education, training, and professional organisations for conference interpreters in both Malta and the Republic of Ireland are outlined and compared, thereby offering a suitable basis for subsequent empirically-based research.

Bi/multilingual testing for bi/multilingual students: policy, equality, justice, and future challenges

ABSTRACT Notwithstanding the introduction of education multilingual policies worldwide, testing and assessment procedures still rely almost exclusively on the monolingual construct. This paper describes a study, part of a larger project fostering a new multilingual education policy in Israeli schools, exploring bi/multilingual assessment. It included two types of second language learners—immigrants from the Former Soviet Union, who learn all their school subjects in Hebrew, and Arab students, whose school language of instruction is Arabic but who learn some subjects in Hebrew. The experimental groups received a bilingual version of a test (Hebrew-Russian; Hebrew Arabic) and the control groups a Hebrew-only version. In the Russian-speaking experimental group, students received significantly higher scores than in the control group, while no significant differences surfaced between the groups among the Arabic-speaking students. Yet, attitudes toward bilingual assessment, evaluated via questionnaires, think aloud protocols and focus groups, were highly positive in both groups, addressing the availability of L1 in the test as contributing greatly to a more relaxed and positive approach. Multilingual tools emerged as a fairer method of assessing knowledge for second-language learners, who cannot fully demonstrate their academic knowledge in L2, and their use is recommended as part of the new multilingual policy.

Influences on Teachers’ Use of the Prescribed Language of Instruction: Evidence from Four Language Groups in the Philippines

In 2009 the Philippines introduced a mother tongue-based multilingual education language policy requiring the “mother tongue” as the language of instruction (LOI) in kindergarten through grade 3. Using teacher classroom language data collected from four LOI groups in 2019, we compared the frequency of teachers’ use of the target LOI in different contexts, including urban versus rural classrooms, classrooms with relatively homogeneous student language backgrounds versus more heterogeneous classrooms, and classrooms with materials in the target language versus classrooms without. We also examined language usage against characteristics of the teacher populations, including language background, years of experience, training, and beliefs about the best language for initial literacy. The results strongly suggest that the most influential levers for increasing teacher usage of a designated LOI in these contexts are ensuring that teachers are assigned to schools where the LOI matches their own first language and providing teaching and learning materials in the target LOI, especially teacher’s guides. These two factors were more strongly and more consistently correlated with teacher use of the LOI than all other variables examined. The linguistic homogeneity of the student population also showed a statistically significant though lower impact on teacher language usage.

English as a lingua franca and European identity – parallelisms in their development

AbstractThis paper examines the relationship between English as a lingua franca (henceforth ELF) and European identity. In the first place, the ELF phenomenon and its status in the European context, where multilingual policies prevail, are discussed. Secondly, this article addresses how globalization has triggered identification processes that are novel and should be treated as such and it analyses the characteristics of an alleged European identity, triggered by the pulse of globalizing processes. The role ELF may play in identification processes with Europe is examined. Finally, this article demonstrates that the flexible and hybrid nature of both ELF and European identity make them two very similar phenomena that add an extra layer to localized languages and national identities, respectively. Under this light, the hypothesis is presented that ELF and European identity are interconnected, and that ELF may be an essential condition for a sense of European identity to form.

Language preferences of students in general and professional educational institutions: results of longitudinal research

  The theme of the research is the result of five-year research of linguistic adaptation of a group of pupils of general educational and professional educational institutions of RK in the context of implemen- tation of the modern language policy of multilingualism. The aim of the study is to examine the language strategies and tactics of the students and their implementation in their main social practices. The main directions of the research include language preferences of young people in communication at different levels of sociality, assessment of the level of knowledge of three languages – state language, Russian and English, assessment of representation of the state language in the global network, attitude towards Latin script and multilingualism in general. The significance of the work lies in identifying the contemporary language preferences of young people in the implementation of language policy and identifying the ways of language adaptation. The research methodology includes a quantitative research method, in particular a questionnaire survey. The main conclusions of the research work are the following: the development of the state language remains the task of the indigenous ethnic group; this development mainly takes place in the dyad – fam- ily and studies, the other social circles are covered mainly by bilingualism; multilingualism has not yet formed as an extensive language practice among young people; representatives of small ethnic groups of Kazakhstan prefer Russian to the state language as a language of their socialization and adaptation. Key words: state language, multilingualism, bilingualism, language adaptation.

Languages for learning: a framework for implementing India’s multilingual language-in-education policy

ABSTRACT This paper proposes a framework for multilingual language-in-education policy implementation, offered as a critically constructive response to India’s recent National Education Policy 2020 (GOI, 2020). Rooted in India’s existing educational language policy, our linguistically inclusive ‘Languages for Learning’ (LFL) framework is, we believe, structurally flexible, socioculturally feasible, economically viable and academically relevant. It aims to foster equity and also to ensure first language support and cognitive independence. Before presenting the framework, we critically review the multilingual policy guidance offered in NEP 2020, then lay out a theoretical foundation for the LFL framework based primarily on current translanguaging theory, and also discuss the history of India’s much maligned three-language formula (TLF), which forms the core of language policy in India. The framework itself is presented with reference to specific contextual challenges in India that may also serve to indicate its relevance for other multilingual contexts around the world. As such, the LFL framework is offered as a more multilingually-appropriate alternative to the reductive construct of ‘Medium of Instruction’, which itself originates in the monolingual habitus of historically outdated language-in-education policy theory. We invite critical evaluations of the utility of our framework, both for India and other multilingual contexts.

La politique du multilinguisme dans le système éducatif polonais

The aim of this article is to reflect on the implementation modalities of educational policy promoting multilingualism in Poland, a country where linguistic and cultural variety remains relatively low. The article begins with a definition of the concept of “language policy”. Subsequently, the European Union’s directives promoting the policy of multilingualism in the educational context are presented. In this part, the focus is on the following aspects: modern foreign languages, regional and minority languages, certification of language skills and teaching of a curriculum subject integrated into foreign language instruction. The last part of the article concentrates on the implementation of the said directives in Poland. In the research, the author relies on statistical data from various sources to demonstrate that - even if Poland is considered a country where linguistic and cultural variety remains low - foreign (in a broad sense of the term), regional and minority languages are regaining their rightful place in the functioning of the state, including in the Polish education system.

Discourses shaping the language-in-education policy and foreign language education in Nepal: an intersectional perspective

ABSTRACT Language policy and planning in Nepal has been contested due to the co-existence of multiple contradictory discourses concerning teaching and learning of local, national, foreign, and international languages. Recently a multilingual policy was issued to create space for the once-banned ethnic/indigenous languages in public schooling, further complexifying the landscape. A few studies have paid attention to teaching and learning of the lesser taught ethnic/indigenous and foreign languages; however, what discursive orientations have contributed towards enabling (or constraining) the use of such languages in education and how have yet to receive scholarly attention. Framed by the perspectives of the intersectionality of discourses, and drawing on in-depth interviews with policymakers, headteachers, teachers, students, and their parents of five schools of Nepal, this paper concludes that the interplay between broader discourses such as globalisation, neoliberal marketisation and nationalism has played a significant role in shaping language policy decisions and localised practice of language(s). It also reveals that the spaces for ethnic/indigenous languages in education are delimited, in preference of English, Nepali, and other emerging foreign languages, leading to their further marginalisation. Such trends diminish the potential use of lesser taught languages, threatening Nepal’s multilingual education policy towards sustaining existing linguistic diversity.

The effect of individual factors on L3 teachers’ beliefs about multilingual education

ABSTRACT Empirical research on L3 teachers' beliefs has gained momentum in the last decade since teacher cognition is paramount for understanding teaching practices in multilingual settings. Yet, many of these works deal with experienced language practitioners (e.g. [Otwinowska, A. (2017). English teachers' language awareness: Away with the monolingual bias? Language Awareness, 26 (4), 304–324]) and focus on the impact of instruction about multilingual pedagogies (e.g. [Gorter, D., & Arocena, E. (2020). Teachers' beliefs about multilingualism in a course on translanguaging. System, 92 (102272)]. Less attention has been awarded to pre-service content teachers ([Portolés, L., & Martí, O. (2020). Teachers' beliefs about multilingual pedagogies and the role of initial training. International Journal of Multilingualism, 17(2), 248–264; Schroedler, T., & Fischer, N. (2020). The role of beliefs in teacher professionalisation for multilingual classroom settings. European Journal of Applied Linguistics, 8 (1), 49–72]) or to the effect of individual factors other than teacher training on their beliefs. To address this research gap, the present paper examines whether external and internal factors affect 121 teacher trainees' cognition about multilingualism in Infant and Primary education. Although no significant differences across groups are found, results depict a teacher's profile more inclined towards implementing multilingual policies.

Gestures and the Spoken Language: A Crucial Semiotic and Symbiotic Relationship in Multilingual Mathematics Classes

This study’s focus was two-fold, first to look at forms of gestures teachers of multilingual mathematics classes use during teaching; and second to find out how teachers of multilingual mathematics classes utilize learners’ home language, language of learning and teaching and gestures to foster understanding in the teaching of mathematics. This qualitative case study is informed by the embodied cognition theory and social constructivism. Two purposively selected Grade 11 teachers were observed and video recorded while teaching trigonometry for a week in a multilingual policy environment. They were each interviewed for an hour. Results shows that iconic and deictic gestures were frequently used to link the teacher’s verbal language and the diagrams on the chalkboard or what was previously learnt, to ground cognition into the physical teaching and learning environment. Metaphoric gestures were less used while beat gestures were not used. Results also show that there exists an intricate semiotic and symbiotic relationship between gestures (bodily actions), and spoken language (in two or more languages in the same environment). In this paper, I conclude that in multilingual classes all forms of teacher gestures that indicate and refers to objects and locations in reality may help improve learning. Gestures and verbal languages complement each other, and should be used as resources for mediating and scaffolding teaching and learning.

English learner education and teacher preparation in the U.S.: an interpretive language education policy analysis

ABSTRACT This article examines recent U.S. language education policies regarding English learners (ELs) and their teachers using an interpretive policy analysis theoretical lens (Wagenaar 2011) incorporating a sensemaking perspective on organizational dynamics (Weick, Sutcliffe, and Obstfeld 2005). We portray U.S. EL policies as shaped by varying macro, meso, and micro-local sociohistorical contexts and conflicting discourses regarding language and education. We identify major tensions between (a) centripetal versus centrifugal policy influences; (b) monolingual English-only versus multilingual policy influences; (c) policies that address ELs’ specific instructional needs versus policies addressing equitable access to the mainstream curriculum. We argue that EL policy must be considered in tandem with language teacher education policies since educators’ sensemaking of these tensions depends on their professional training, dispositions, and beliefs. We identify significant gaps in U.S. language teacher education policies including (a) low and inconsistent levels of teacher preparation, (b) little training for mainstream educators, and (c) inadequate recruitment of educators from EL students’ ethnolinguistic communities. Based on our analysis, we argue for rigorous comparative interpretive policy analyses (Appe and Telch 2020) of EL and language teacher education policies both within and across English-dominant societies to elucidate common challenges, advocate and work for equity, and make institutional change.

Multilingualism Factors of the European Union Member-States

Languages are the basis for Europeans who want to coexist and work together. To do this, the Europeans need to understand each other, the EU's neighbors and partners as well, and to teach and promote the linguistic heritage of the Member States. The motto of the European Union – “Unity in diversity” – reflects multilingualism as the basis of the EU, which is enshrined in a number of documents at the pan-European level. Multilingualism makes business and citizens more competitive and mobile. Promoting multilingualism is a great way to unite Europeans, to build a truly inclusive society where citizens' rights are respected. In the EU “multilingualism” is treated as the ability of communities, groups and individuals to use more than one language in their daily activities on an ongoing basis. The European Commission (together with national governments) coordinates the goal of multilingualism and the goals of the language strategy. Languages should not be an obstacle to participation in society, and marginalized language groups should be identified, represented and included in society. However, the national language policy is the sphere of competence of each state. The article substantiates the assumption that there are certain factors that determine the specifics and level of multilingualism of the EU Member-States. The multilingualism index of each EU Member-State was calculated and the countries were ranked according to a number of sub-indices, in particular: official languages, foreign language skills, language education and study, foreigners (migrants) and language policy, everyday languages, international communications. It was found out that according to the integrated index of multilingualism, the top 5 countries are represented by Luxembourg, Germany, Finland, Sweden and the Netherlands. The most important factors determining the policy of multilingualism are the following: the influence of citizens who are interested in learning foreign languages, as well as foreigners, migrants who study the state language to assimilate in society, the influence of using foreign languages in practice and online communication.