Multilingual University Settings Research Articles

Multilingualism rather than English-only: policy and practice in classical music higher education

ABSTRACT The rise of English-medium education in (European) higher education has attracted considerable attention, but most analyses of the topic to date have been conducted in traditional universities. Highly international fields such as that of classical music higher education (CMHE) remain under-researched. Dafouz, E., and U. Smit. 2016. “Towards a Dynamic Conceptual Framework for English Medium Education in Multilingual University Settings.” Applied Linguistics 37 (3): 397–415 and Dafouz, E., and U. Smit. 2020. ROAD-MAPPING English Medium Education in the Internationalised University. Palgrave Macmillan. The ROAD-MAPPING framework provides an analytical tool for examining such complex contexts and unpacking the various factors at play in these multilingual university settings. In this paper, we present a mixed-methods case study at one of Austria’s largest state-funded music universities, comprising a policy analysis, a survey and semi-structured interviews with students, teachers and management. Using the ROAD-MAPPING framework to guide our analysis, we found that university policy and reported practice were coherent among all groups, with German as the default medium of education. English is explicitly designated the second academic language, while multilingualism and multimodality are actively promoted as a means of achieving educational and professional goals. However, we also noted that many strategies for coping with these multilingual teaching and learning contexts seem to be rather ad hoc, suggesting that there is a need for more awareness of multilingual pedagogy, and confirming the value of the ROAD-MAPPING framework for examining such complex settings.

One policy, two implementations: probing policy specifications in two EMI courses in a Macao university

ABSTRACT Despite growing literature on EMI policy implementation in higher education contexts, there is a lack of research on how these policies are enacted at the micro-level, particularly in the classroom settings. The present study explores the language beliefs and practices of a psychology professor in two English-medium instruction (EMI) courses which differed in course types and students’ preparedness, in an effort to understand how language policy was enacted in nuanced EMI settings. Drawing on semi-structured interviews, classroom observation, and course artifacts, the study reveals that the non-native English speaking participant held a consistent belief in enforcing a strict English-only policy within the classroom, yet she managed students’ and her own language practices slightly differently (e.g. speak time, pace, vocabulary, L1 proportion) based on specific course objectives. The findings highlight the importance of consistent and mindful language policies that allow for flexible implementation where unique features of individual EMI contexts are accommodated. Through highlighting the agency of EMI teachers as language policy arbiters, we reimagined the original ROAD-MAPPING framework [Dafouz, E., & Smit, U. (2016). Toward a dynamic conceptual framework for English-medium education in multilingual university settings. Applied Linguistics, 37(3), 397–415] to capture the granular and dynamic process of EMI policy enactment and implementation in authentic classrooms. Practical implications are drawn accordingly.

English-medium instruction in multilingual university settings

Abstract To identify stakeholders’ conflicting interests regarding English-medium instruction (EMI) in multilingual university settings, this cross-case study utilised part of the data from a larger project examining the perceptions and experiences of stakeholders (i.e., students, teachers, and management) in business schools at a Chinese university and a Dutch university. Semi-structured interview data from 20 second- and third-year students and 13 staff members comprising management and teachers, both universities in total, were analysed using the ROAD-MAPPING framework. The results revealed conflicting interests in both contexts but in different forms and with different causes. Students’ opinions at the Chinese university conflicted most with teachers and management in terms of perceptions of counterparts’ English proficiency, while teachers at the Dutch university revealed concerns about the position of the national language, Dutch, which was less emphasised by the administration. We discuss these conflicting interests through the lens of Bourdieu’s capital theory, which posits a hierarchy of permanent conflicts in the field of higher education. Drawing carefully on each case, we present generalised suggestions to inform EMI policy and practice that could lessen conflicting interests among stakeholders.

Sites of belonging: Fluctuating and entangled emotions at a UAE English-medium university

English-medium education in multilingual university settings (EMEMUS) hosts a complex concoction of emotions amongst stakeholders. English-medium instruction (EMI) dominates higher education in the United Arab Emirates (UAE). For students, EMI creates both affordances and pressures resulting in pride, confidence, anxiety, guilt, shame, and (un)belonging. For university teachers, navigating EMEMUS can be an ‘emotion-laden process’ involving shifting identities, energy-intensive teaching methodologies, intercultural demands and ‘emotional labor’. This article presents findings from a phenomenological case study involving ten transnational university teachers and 110 Emirati undergraduate students at a UAE EMEMUS. Through metalinguistic reflections, participants discussed emotions and levels of belonging. Thematic analysis of the data revealed shifting positionalities which led to complex and entangled emotions. Intersecting identity aspects such as English proficiency, linguistic background, and language ideologies influenced emotional experiences. The article argues for greater recognition of stakeholders’ emotional labor and sociolinguistic lived realities rather than a one-size-fits-all approach to EMI.

EMI Teachers in a ‘caught-between’ situation? Insights from a case study of an internationalised Chinese university

ABSTRACT In view of the rapid growth of English-medium instruction (EMI) in higher education institutions (HEIs), we observe the need to account for the educational and linguistic consequences of HEIs’ decision to ‘Englishise’ their curricula. Especially, EMI in Asian countries (e.g. China) are fuelled by state-level initiatives to internationalise the higher education sector and implemented top-down in local universities. Although empirical studies report on the (mis)alignments between policymaking and implementation of EMI, little is known about how the interplay between EMI and internationalisation of HEIs is contextualised and negotiated in local contexts. Using the ROAD-MAPPING framework [Dafouz, E., and U. Smit. 2016. ‘Towards a Dynamic Conceptual Framework for English-Medium Education in Multilingual University Settings.’ Applied Linguistics 37 (3): 397–415], we present a case study of an internationally-oriented Chinese university with five distinctive types of EMI. Triangulated documentary and interview data reveal: (1) contextualised policymaking of EMI, which takes into account the bi-directional internationalisation and the needs of the target student cohort, is crucial at the practitioner-level; (2) norms of language use are shaped both top-down and bottom-up, and the teacher-practitioners exercise their agency in enabling bi/multilingual language use and awareness toward Global Englishes from the bottom-up. We also shed new light on how the integration of language and content in EMI is negotiated and/or realised by presenting three special cases.

Rethinking the roles of ELT in English-medium education in multilingual university settings: an introduction

AbstractThe Introduction to this Special Issue on ELT and English-medium education in multilingual university settings provides a picture of the dynamic backdrop to the issues addressed by our contributing writers. We begin with a reflection on the nature of ELT and then move to a discussion of the specific nature of English-medium education in higher education globally. The Introduction underlines the importance of respecting and drawing on students’ multilingual repertoires, and the opportunities this affords for decolonising ELT in university settings.

Towards multilingualism in English‑medium higher education

Abstract Reflecting the global push for internationalisation, higher education institutions (HEIs) have experienced a surge in English-medium education in multilingual university settings (EMEMUS). Of the many topics and angles pursued in the equally vast research landscape, multilingualism has so far received comparatively less attention, especially when approached from the perspective of students. By combining recent conceptualisations of multilingualism and of EMEMUS, this paper offers a qualified literature review, discussing four research scenarios that foreground different student groups and some of their multilingual experiences and practices. Based on the ROAD‑MAPPING framework, such discussions retain a level of detail that allows for a comprehensive interpretation across scenarios, offering insights into the complexity and fluidity of multilingualism within EMEMUS.

Exploring English as a ‘glocal language’ in online EMEMUS

AbstractCOVID-19 led to a transition to ‘remote emergency teaching’ in higher-education contexts across the globe. The impact of this on English-medium education in multilingual university settings (EMEMUS) contexts is yet to be fully understood, but it is clear that it will be long lasting. This article outlines three online pedagogic activities that were adopted in an English-taught course that transitioned from the classroom to online. Based on a conceptualization of English as a ‘glocal language’ and motivated by an orientation towards a ‘pedagogy of care’, the activities were designed to draw on students’ rich linguistic repertoires and support community building. The first activity was a language portrait, the second entailed online and offline exploration of the linguistic landscape of the local contexts, and the third activity was the critical analysis, editing, translation, and/or adaptation of Wikipedia pages. All activities can be adapted for the ELT classroom.

Defining English Medium Instruction: Striving for comparative equivalence

English Medium Instruction (EMI) has been defined as ‘the use of the English language to teach academic subjects (other than English itself) in countries or jurisdictions where the first language (L1) of the majority of the population is not English’ (Macaro, 2018, p. 19). This definition has proved to be controversial but has underpinned the work of our research group, from whose collective perspective this article is written. Debates have centred on the role that English language development plays in EMI contexts, and whether this current definitional scope is too narrow in its exclusion of English medium educational practices in Anglophone settings. Pecorari and Malmström (2018), for example, observe that some members of the EMI research community interpret EMI more broadly to include ‘contexts in which English is a dominant language and in which English language development is supported and actively worked for’ (p. 507). Similarly, Baker and Hüttner (2016, p. 502) state that excluding Anglophone contexts from EMI is ‘unhelpful’ by failing to include the experiences of multilingual students in Anglophone universities who learn through their second language (L2). A focus on multilingualism is also one of the driving forces behind the emergence of new terminology that seeks to shift focus towards the contexts of education, rather than instruction and pedagogy. Dafouz and Smit (2016), for example, prefer the term English-Medium Education in Multilingual University Settings (EMEMUS), because the ‘label is semantically wider, as it does not specify any particular pedagogical approach or research agenda’ (p. 399).

English-medium education revisited

Connected to the growing internationalisation of higher education in the world, the English language is increasingly being used as medium of teaching and learning, thereby contributing to the roles of English for transnational mobility, career development, access to new information and research, and the facilitation of global communication. While the label English-medium instruction (EMI) has been widely used in the last two decades to capture this phenomenon, we consider it an unfortunate choice in that it falls short in conceptualising the complexity of English in twenty-first-century higher education. First, EMI solely focuses on English, ignoring the increasing multilingual realities of higher education institutions (HEIs) worldwide; secondly, EMI does not explicitly include reference to higher education, even though learning and teaching at the tertiary level is in crucial ways different to lower levels of education. Thirdly, EMI talks about “instruction” and thus views education as a non-relational process where teachers teach and learners learn. From this unilateral perspective, the co-construction of knowledge as a key feature of higher education remains unacknowledged. Against this backdrop, our paper sets out to argue for the conceptual need for an alternative label, known as English-medium education in multilingual university settings (or EMEMUS). This label, we argue, portrays more accurately and specifically the growing multilingual reality of current internationalised HEIs, the complex and highly situated roles that English plays in relation to other national and local languages, and the importance of interpreting education as a social-constructivist process. Moreover, EMEMUS will enable HEIs to re-examine comprehensively the range of activities that respond locally to global phenomena, from policy issues (e.g. regulations, implementation and management) to university practices (e.g. teaching, research, administration and teacher professional development) in an inclusive and multifaceted manner. Ultimately, this comprehensive conceptualisation aims to redefine English and internationalisation in a much more nuanced light.

Academic writing centres in multilingual settings: Intermediary agents of higher education language policy?

Academic writing centres in non-Anglophone countries navigate language policies that encourage the development of local languages and English within multilingual university settings. These policies entail diverging language ideologies that connect language use to diversification and standardisation aims. Although writing centres are stakeholders in academic language development and therefore participants in the policy process, their role and agency in this process has been neglected. The study explores how writing centre staff perceive their work in relation to university language policies and aims. Data were collected via a nation-wide survey of centres in Sweden and seven focus groups. The results demonstrate that the staff claim agency as language brokers. Institutional ideologies of monolingualism and assessment regimes that value the text product over the learning process provide limitations. The reported practices illuminate the special status of Swedish for English text production, and opportunities for grassroots agency as intermediaries between students, lecturers and policies.

Exploratory Interactive Explaining (EXINTEX): Constructing Disciplinary Knowledge in Two Multilingual University Settings

Abstract The rise of English-medium education has led to considerable academic interest in communicative practices in multilingual university settings. However, there is still little research into disciplinary knowledge construction in higher education contexts where English is the academic lingua franca. To address this gap, we embrace the central role of explaining in education by proposing Exploratory Interactive Explaining (EXINTEX) as an analytical tool, which identifies the elements of explanatory episodes in the joint development of disciplinary knowledge. We then apply this tool at the micro-level of interaction to two comparable contexts differentiated primarily by the presence or absence of a teacher. Our findings confirm the relevance and high level of educational success of EXINTEX episodes in both quantitative and qualitative terms. They further reveal the dynamic interplay of epistemic authority and engagement in the learning process. Additionally, they show how research into educational disciplinary discourse and English as a lingua franca in academic settings can complement and supplement each other.

Supporting educational developers in the era of internationalised higher education: insights from a European project

ABSTRACTIn the past decades, and as a result of the internationalisation processes experienced by higher education across the world, English-medium education (EME) has gained momentum in universities where well-established national and/or local languages had traditionally been the means of instruction. While this phenomenon is growing at a fast pace, professional support for the lecturers engaged is very often scarce and unsystematic. Against this backdrop, the EU project known as EQUiiP (Educational Quality at Universities for Inclusive International Programmes) takes as point of departure the support of a specific set of agents – educational developers (EDs) – who, although essential in the design and implementation of internationalised programmes, has attracted scarce research attention. Drawing conceptually on the ROAD-MAPPING framework (Dafouz, E., and U. Smit. [2016]. “Towards a Dynamic Conceptual Framework for English-Medium Education in Multilingual University Settings.” Applied Linguistics 37 (3): 397–415) and with the help of data from a baseline survey gathered by EQUiiP, this paper explores the roles, beliefs and practices of EDs in these concrete internationalised programmes. Our findings reveal great differences in these agents’ backgrounds and areas of expertise as well as different perspectives on the roles of language(s), and more particularly English, in the process of internationalising higher education.

“We are not the language police”: Comparing multilingual EMI programmes in Europe and Asia

English medium instruction (EMI) in higher education has rapidly increased over the last decade in Europe and Asia. However, this expansion has far outstripped research and many key questions remain unanswered. This study addresses a number of those questions related to roles and conceptualisations of English and other languages in multilingual university settings. Data is presented from an exploratory mixed‐methods (121 questionnaire responses and 12 interviews with lecturers and students), comparative study of higher education institutes in the UK, Austria and Thailand. Findings showed a move from monolingual orientations at management level, mixed responses to multilingualism in ideologies and beliefs, to extensive multilingualism and complexity in practices. Furthermore, unexpected similarities between the UK and Thailand as regards language proficiency and content learning were found.

The English-medium paradigm: a conceptualisation of English-medium teaching in higher education

ABSTRACTThe discourse on English-medium teaching in higher education uses several terms and concepts to describe practices, very often synonymously. This contribution aims to fill the research gap of a conceptualisation of English-medium teaching in higher education. It will identify relevant approaches and their corresponding terminology, as well as clarify which approaches are most suitable for higher education. Given that the past decades have seen a substantial rise in the use of English as a teaching language in European compulsory schooling [Dalton-Puffer, C. 2011. “Content and Language Integrated Learning: From Practice to Principles?” Annual Review of Applied Linguistics 31: 182–183], the paper will also draw parallels between the secondary and the tertiary levels of education. At the same time, it will also be shown why insights drawn from research conducted in secondary education cannot simply be transferred to the tertiary level of education.The main focus of the paper is on the ‘English-medium Paradigm,’ a framework created to identify prevalent instructional types in English-taught programmes at universities in non-Anglophone countries [Unterberger, B. 2014. “English-medium Degree Programmes in Austrian Tertiary Business Studies: Policies and Programme Design.” Dissertation, University of Vienna, 45–52]. The paradigm is based on terminological and conceptual considerations gained from the critical discussion of English for specific purposes, English for academic purposes, Content and language integrated learning and English-medium instruction literature [e.g. Bhatia, V. K. 1993. Analysing Genre: Language use in Professional Settings. London: Longman; Hyland, K. 2006. English for Academic Purposes: An Advanced Resource Book. London: Routledge; Dalton-Puffer, C. 2007. “Academic Language Functions in a CLIL Environment.” In Diverse Contexts - Converging Goals: CLIL in Europe, edited by D. Marsh, 201–209. Mehrsprachigkeit in Schule und Unterricht 6. Frankfurt am Main: Lang; Dafouz, E., and U. Smit. 2014. “Towards a Dynamic Conceptual Framework for English-medium Education in Multilingual University Settings.” Applied Linguistics. doi:10.1093/applin/amu034]. The paper therefore provides a timely conceptualisation of the varieties of English-medium teaching in higher education which also takes into account pedagogical considerations as well as implications for curriculum design.

Towards a Dynamic Conceptual Framework for English-Medium Education in Multilingual University Settings

At a time of increasing internationalization in tertiary education, English-Medium Education in Multilingual University Settings (EMEMUS) has become a common practice. While there is already ample research describing this phenomenon at a local level (Smit and Dafouz 2012a), the theoretical side needs to be elaborated. This article thus aims to develop a conceptual framework that considers the dynamic nature of EMEMUS. Drawing on recent sociolinguistic orientations and discursive approaches (e.g. Scollon and Scollon 2004; Shohamy 2006; Blommaert 2010; Hult 2010), our framework regards EMEMUS as a social phenomenon and views discourse as the access point to six relevant dimensions. These dimensions are considered as inherently complex, contextually bound, and intersecting dynamically with one another. Focusing on an example from a higher education institution, the article argues for the utility of the proposed framework.