Multidimensional Anxiety Theory Research Articles

The relationship among gameplay self-efficacy, competition anxiety, and the performance of eSports players

Sports psychology has devoted much attention to studying the relationship between psychological factors and sports performance, yet eSports, as an emerging sport, is still under-researched, and research on eSports players' game self-efficacy, competitive anxiety, and competitive performance is quite rare. To address this gap, this study, based on the multidimensional anxiety theory, explored their correlates. For research purposes, eSports players in China who had participated in the Honor of Kings Champion Cup were invited to take part in the study. There were 232 effective participants in total, and the data were analyzed by confirmatory factor analysis and structural equation modelling to verify the research hypotheses. The results showed that game self-efficacy was negatively related with three types of competition anxiety (negative appraisal, inability, and opponent performance). Regarding their relationship with competition performance, negative appraisal anxiety was positively related, inability anxiety was negatively related, and opponent performance anxiety was not significantly related. Finally, gameplay self-efficacy was indirectly positively related with competition performance mediated by the three types of competitive anxiety.

Níveis de ansiedade de atletas no início e no final de um campeonato de basquetebol

Objetivo: O objetivo desse estudo foi investigar o nível de ansiedade pré-competitiva de atletas de basquetebol, das categorias de base de um clube esportivo, comparando o nível de ansiedade pré-competitiva no início e no final do campeonato de 2018. Metodologia: Para isso, participaram do estudo 26 atletas, voluntários, do sexo masculino, federados, com idades entre 13 e 15 anos. Os atletas responderam o Competitive State Anxiety Inventory – 2r (CSAI-2r). Resultados e discussão: Os resultados demonstraram que os atletas apresentaram escores elevados de autoconfiança e valores baixos de ansiedade somática, tanto no início, quanto no final do campeonato de 2018. Além disso, durante o campeonato, os valores de autoconfiança mantiveram-se estáveis, sendo sempre superiores aos valores de ansiedade. Conclusão: Pode-se concluir que durante o campeonato de 2018 os atletas apresentaram um elevado escore de autoconfiança e que esse elevado escore tem direta influência nos valores baixos de ansiedade cognitiva e somática, corroborando a teoria Multidimensional da ansiedade.

Os efeitos da idade e do sexo no nível de ansiedade de nadadores de águas abertas

Objetivo: O presente estudo teve como objetivo investigar a ansiedade pré-competitiva em nadadores de águas abertas e analisar se a idade e o sexo alteram os níveis de ansiedade pré-competitiva. Metodologia: Para isso, o estudo contou com a participação voluntária de 129 nadadores com idade entre 14 e 49 anos de idade, de ambos os sexos, todos participantes de competições de águas abertas. Os participantes responderam um questionário. O questionário adotado foi o CSAI-2R (Competitive State Anxiety Inventory – 2r, versão reduzida). Resultados e discussão: Os resultados demonstraram que a autoconfiança apresentou valores elevados para todos os grupos amostrais e que a idade e o sexo não são fatores determinantes para os resultados. Além disso, foi encontrada uma correlação forte entre a subescala somática e a cognitiva, corroborando a teoria Multidimensional da ansiedade, na qual diz que quando a autoconfiança apresenta escores elevados, a ansiedade é baixa. Conclusão: Diante disso, os resultados mostraram que independentemente da idade e do sexo, os nadadores de águas abertas apresentam valores elevados de autoconfiança, o que influencia os escores baixos de ansiedade cognitiva e somática.

Interaction between Gender and Skill on Competitive State Anxiety Using the Time-to-Event Paradigm: What Roles Do Intensity, Direction, and Frequency Dimensions Play?

Background and purpose: The functional understanding and examination of competitive anxiety responses as temporal events that unfold as time-to-competition moves closer has emerged as a topical research area within the domains of sport psychology. However, little is known from an inclusive and interaction oriented perspective. Using the multidimensional anxiety theory as a framework, the present study examined the temporal patterning of competitive anxiety, focusing on the dimensions of intensity, direction, and frequency of intrusions in athletes across gender and skill level.Methods: Elite and semi-elite table tennis athletes from the Ghanaian league (N = 90) completed a modified version of Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2 (CSAI-2) with the inclusion of the directional and frequency of intrusion scales at three temporal phases (7 days, 2 days, and 1 h) prior to a competitive fixture.Results: Multivariate Analyses of Variance repeated measures with follow-up analyses revealed significant interactions for between-subjects factors on all anxiety dimensions (intensity, direction, and frequency). Notably, elite (international) female athletes were less cognitively anxious, showed more facilitative interpretation toward somatic anxiety symptoms and experienced less frequency of somatic anxiety symptoms than their male counterparts. However, both elite groups displayed appreciable level of self-confidence. For time-to-event effects, both cognitive and somatic anxiety intensity fluctuated whereas self-confidence showed a steady rise as competition neared. Somatic anxiety debilitative interpretation slightly improved 1 h before competition whereas cognitive anxiety frequencies also increased progressively during the entire preparatory phase.Conclusion: Findings suggest a more dynamic image of elite athletes’ pre-competitive anxiety responses than suggested by former studies, potentially influenced by cultural differences. The use of psychological skills interventions that require effective structure, content, and timing in a composite manner is suggested.

Competitive state anxiety and self-confidence: Intensity and direction as relative predictors of performance on a golf putting task

This study considered relationships between the intensity and directional aspects of competitive state anxiety as measured by the modified Competitive Sport Anxiety Inventory-2(D) (Jones & Swain, 1992) in a sample of 12 experienced male golfers. Anxiety and performance scores from identical putting tasks performed under three different anxiety-manipulated competitive conditions were used to assess both the predictions of Multidimensional Anxiety Theory (MAT; Martens et al., 1990) and the relative value of intensity and direction in explaining performance variance. A within-subjects regression analysis of the intra-individual data showed partial support for the three MAT hypotheses. Cognitive anxiety intensity demonstrated a negative linear relationship with performance, somatic anxiety intensity showed a curvilinear relationship with performance, and self-confidence intensity revealed a positive linear relation. Cognitive directional anxiety illustrated a positive linear relationship with putting performance. Multiple regression analyses indicated that direction (42% of variance) was a better predictor of performance than intensity (22%)

The Multidimensional Anxiety Theory: An Assessment of and Relationships Between Intensity and Direction of Cognitive Anxiety, Somatic Anxiety, and Self-confidence over Multiple Performance Requirements among College Music Majors

This study applied the multidimensional anxiety theory to musicians by examining the intensity and direction of cognitive anxiety, somatic anxiety, and self-confidence over multiple performance requirements among college music majors. This study assessed and compared teacher and student perceptions of the student’s performance anxiety and its subsequent impact on several studio lessons and jury performances. Seventy-one college musicians (39 females, 32 males) from the University of North Texas College of Music volunteered to participate in this study. Four different assessment tools were employed in this study: a demographic questionnaire, a modified version of the Competitive Trait Anxiety Inventory-2 (CTAI-2), a modified version of the Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2 (CSAI-2), and a subjective self-assessment of performance. The results showed that of the 71 subjects initially assessed, 59 subjects (83.1%) reported experiencing performance anxiety. This study supports the application of the multidimensional anxiety theory by highlighting the existence of two distinct, yet related dimensions of performance anxiety; how these dimensions change in response to changing stress levels associated with changing demands; and the probable interaction with levels of self-confidence. This study underscores the challenges associated with how teachers may or may not recognize the existence and subsequent impact of performance anxiety among college students. Additional studies are needed to determine what educational variables, including psychosocial values, are associated with the development and fluctuation of self-confidence. Further research designs should implement the CTAI-2 and the CSAI-2 for the assessment of competitive performance anxiety experienced by musicians associated with music performance.

The Effect of Role Ambiguity on Competitive State Anxiety

The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between role ambiguity and precompetition state anxiety (A-state). Consistent with multidimensional anxiety theory (Martens, Vealey, & Burton, 1990), it was hypothesized that role ambiguity would be positively related to cognitive but not to somatic A-state. Based on the conceptual model presented by Beauchamp, Bray, Eys, and Carron (2002), role ambiguity in sport was operationalized as a multidimensional construct (i.e., scope of responsibilities, role behaviors, role evaluation, and role consequences) potentially manifested in each of two contexts, offense and defense. Consistent with hypotheses, ambiguity in terms of the scope of offensive role responsibilities predicted cognitive A-state (R2 = .19). However, contrary to hypotheses, offensive role-consequences ambiguity also predicted somatic A-state (R2 = .09). Results highlight the importance of using a multidimensional approach to investigate role ambiguity in sport and are discussed in terms of both theory advancement and possible interventions.

Intensity and Interpretation of Competitive State Anxiety: Relationship to Performance and Repressive Coping

This study examined (a) the predictions of multidimensional anxiety theory, (b) the effect of interpreting anxiety responses as having a debilitative or facilitative effect on performance, and (c) the influence of a repressive coping style on the relationship of anxiety to performance in recreational and semi-professional bowlers (N = 158). Regression analyses indicated cognitive intensity had an inverted-U relationship to performance that explained 4.1% of the variance (p < .05). The somatic direction subscale had a positive linear relationship to performance that explained 3.0% of the variance (p < .05). Removing bowlers with a repressive coping style resulted in a stronger and different anxiety-performance relationship. Cognitive intensity kept an inverted-U relationship, but increased the performance variance explained to 12.6%. Somatic intensity became significant, but with a negative linear relationship that explained 6.1% of performance variance. The findings did not support multi-dimensional anxiety theory and offered only limited support for inclusion of directional interpretation scales.

Applications of the Individual Zones of Optimal Functioning Model for the Multimodal Treatment of Precompetitive Anxiety

Effects of a precompetitive anxiety regulation system, based upon tenets of the individual zones of optimal functioning (IZOF) model, multidimensional anxiety theory, and the specific-effects hypothesis, were tested. In Phase I, case studies (3 elite adolescent tennis players) were used to analyze the IZOF model within a multidimensional state anxiety framework. In Phase II, the effectiveness of a precompetitive anxiety regulation system, based upon IZOF and the specific-effects hypothesis, was tested for enhancing match performance. Essential elements of IZOF theory were supported. In Phase II, inzone/out-of-zone A-state assessment was used to guide athletes’ treatment selections. After training athletes in prematch psychological skills designed to regulate specific cognitive state anxiety, somatic state anxiety, and state selfconfidence dimensions, posttreatment performances yielded higher values (ps &lt; .05) than pretreatment. The need to replicate findings through different sample types, sports, and expertise levels was emphasized. Concerns with intrusion into athletes’ precompetitive routines were discussed.

A Test of Multidimensional Anxiety Theory with Male Wheelchair Basketball Players

The purpose of the present field study was to examine the predictions of Multidimensional Anxiety Theory (MAT; Martens et al., 1990) with elite male wheelchair basketball players. Thirty-seven elite male wheelchair basketball players completed the CSAI-II prior to each of three tournament games. Results were analyzed using the intraindividual procedures recommended by Sonstroem and Bernado (1982), and separate polynomial trend analyses were used to test the predictions of MAT. Results did not provide statistical support for MAT in that there were no reliable trends between cognitive state anxiety, somatic state anxiety, state self-confidence, and basketball performance. Avenues for future research are suggested.

Three-Dimensional State Anxiety Recall: Implications for Individual Zone of Optimal Functioning Research and Application

The accuracy of athletes in recalling precompetition anxiety was tested using the Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2. Young and adolescent female gymnastics and field hockey athletes (N = 34) were tested one hour precompetition and again 48 hours postcompetition (with instructions to recall precompetition feelings). Correlations were significantly different (weaker) than when the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory was used within the same time frame (Harger &amp; Raglin, 1994). After establishing individual “zones” around actual state anxiety values, based on individual zone of optimal functioning (IZOF) theory (Hanin, 1980, 1986, 1989), it was determined that the weaker correlations in the present study translated into enough incorrect in-zone/out-of-zone assessments that two-day recall, using the CSAI-2, may not be useful for IZOF research and practice. The necessity to further this research with other samples and sports was emphasized. The possibility of using alternate methods was discussed in an effort to provide accurate, minimally intrusive state anxiety measurement which may, ultimately, guide practitioners in effective intervention design through the use of IZOF, multidimensional anxiety theory, and the specific-effects (matching) hypothesis.

A test of catastrophe models of anxiety and sports performance against multidimensional anxiety theory models using the method of dynamic differences

Guastello's method of dynamic differences was used to fit catastrophe and multidimensional anxiety theory based behavior surfaces to data obtained from eight experienced golfers. The subjects were first taught to self-report their cognitive anxiety, somatic anxiety, and self-confidence levels as a single integer on a scale from 1 (low) to 27 (high). These single integer scales were then used to monitor levels of cognitive anxiety, somatic anxiety, and self-confidence, together with physiological arousal (operationalized as heart rate), prior to each putt during a Stapleford golf competition. All data was standardized within subjects in order to control for individual differences in response sensitivity and putting ability. Preliminary examination of the results suggested that the catastrophe models were superior to the multidimensional anxiety theory models, and that the inclusion of self-confidence significantly improved the goodness of fit of both models. However, further tests of other control models suggested that the apparent superiority of the catstrophe models was probably due to the inclusion of a temporal factor in Guastello's method of dynamic differences. It was concluded that the results do not offer any clear evidence for the superiority of either catastrophe or multidimensional anxiety theory based models of anxiety and performance. They do suggest that self-confidence is an important factor in performance which is at least partially independent of cognitive anxiety. They also suggest that future research might benefit considering performance as an ongoing temporal process rather than a discrete event.

Intensity and frequency dimensions of competitive state anxiety.

This study reports a preliminary investigation of intensity and frequency of symptoms of competitive state anxiety. Forty-nine track and field athletes (27 males, 22 females) responded to a modified version of the Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2 (CSAI-2) on four occasions during the period leading up to an important competition: 2 days, 1 day, 2 h and within 30 min of competing. The questionnaire included the existing CSAI-2 (intensity) scale as well as a frequency scale for each of the 27 items of the CSAI-2. The intensity and frequency dimensions of each of the CSAI-2-sub-scales were then compared between the four conditions by means of two-way analyses of variance (gender x time-to-competition). In the case of cognitive anxiety, time-to-event effects were observed for intensity and frequency for both males and females. The intensity of the response was significantly greater at the final stage of testing than it was 2 days before competition, while the frequency of the response increased progressively throughout the experimental period. This dissociative patterning for the cognitive anxiety dimensions is discussed in the light of Multidimensional Anxiety Theory predictions. For somatic anxiety, the time-to-event effects that emerged for intensity and frequency revealed that both values increased progressively as the time to compete neared, for both male and females. The results for self-confidence revealed no effects for intensity or frequency for either gender. The findings from structured follow-up interviews served to corroborate these quantitative findings by providing information that supported the conclusions drawn from the questionnaire data. In particular, the athletes reported that they experienced considerable increases in the frequency of intrusive anxiety cognitions. While these findings clearly need to be substantiated, they do provide evidence of the existence of an additional dimension of anxiety that may assist our understanding of this complex concept. The measurement of competitive state anxiety may benefit from this more detailed approach as opposed to the rather limited intensity-alone perspective.

A Practical Application of the Anxiety–Athletic Performance Relationship: The Zone of Optimal Functioning Hypothesis

Hanin (1980) proposed the zone of optimal functioning hypothesis (ZOF), suggesting that each athlete has a specific band width, or zone, of anxiety in which best performances will most likely be observed. The present study combined the ZOF hypothesis with the multidimensional anxiety theory (Martens, Burton, Vealey, Bump, &amp; Smith, 1990). Unique cognitive anxiety and somatic anxiety zones were identified, and it was hypothesized that athletes whose anxiety levels fell within these zones would be more successful than athletes whose anxiety levels were outside these zones. Results of separate cognitive and somatic anxiety ANOVAs indicated that poorest performances were observed when athletes’ cognitive and somatic anxiety were above their zones; performances when anxiety was within or below cognitive and somatic anxiety zones did not differ.

Conceptual and Methodological Considerations in Sport Anxiety Research: From the Inverted-U Hypothesis to Catastrophe Theory

Researchers in sport psychology have devoted much energy to understanding the elusive relationship between anxiety and athletic performance. As new theories are being forwarded in the sport anxiety literature, it is important that they be tested in conceptually and methodologically sound environments. The present review examines conceptual and methodological issues in sport anxiety research, especially focusing on the inverted-U hypothesis, multidimensional anxiety theory, and catastrophe theory. Issues discussed include the correlational versus causal nature of the inverted-U hypothesis; the lack of differentiation among anxiety-related terms such as anxiety, arousal, and stress; the need for a multidimensional conception of anxiety; the assumption that perceived physiological arousal is typically considered negative affect by researchers; the need to utilize appropriate measurement and operational definitions of performance; and the use of intraindividual anxiety scores. Statistical issues related to investigation of multidimensional anxiety and catastrophe theories are also addressed.

Psychological stress, performance, and injury in sport.

This paper reviews the empirical literature on psychological stress in sport, and the effects that such stress may have upon performance, vulnerability to injury, and rehabilitation from injury. It also examines the strategies that sports performers could use to overcome these effects. The major sources of stress that have been reported by sports performers include fear of failure, concerns about social evaluation by others (particularly the coach), lack of readiness to perform, and loss of internal control over one's environment. Various models and theories of the effects of such stress upon performance and vulnerability to injury are reviewed, including multidimensional anxiety theory and a catastrophe model of anxiety and performance. The cognitive and physiological processes which are thought to underly these effects are also reviewed, together with the intervention strategies that are implied by these processes. Research on the psychological stress that appears to be experienced by performers when they are injured is very limited. However, that which is available suggests that many of the same psychological skills that are thought to enhance performance can also be used to reduce the risk of injury, and promote a speedy recovery from injury. These include goal-setting, imagery, self-talk, and relaxation skills.