Muhammad Shah Research Articles

Review of Maziar Behrooz - Iran at War: Interactions with the Modern World and the Struggle with Imperial Russia

This compact book offers a closely researched account of the early years of the Qajar dynasty and state, whose political development was permanently marked by the territorial struggle with the Russian Empire in the South Caucasus in its first three decades. Behrooz's work builds on Muriel Atkin's classic Russia and Iran 1780–1928 (1980), and although unlike Atkin he does not make use of any sources in Russian, the range of Persian-language material he draws upon is much greater, and the two books complement each other well. The first two chapters effectively set the political scene, providing a review of the circumstances of Aqa Muhammad Khan's rise to power, his struggle with the Zand rulers of Shiraz, and the extensive preparations he made to secure the succession of his nephew, Baba Khan Jahanbani, the future Fath Ali Shah. These bore fruit when Aqa Muhammad Shah was murdered by his own servants in Shusha in 1797. Significantly, this took place during a campaign to subdue Qarabagh. The central figure of the book, and of the wars against Russia, is Fath Ali's son Abbas Mirza, but a particular strength of Behrooz's account is his close understanding of the family and intertribal relationships among the Qajar elite, as well as of the petty dynasties that ruled in Qarabagh, Iravan, Badkubeh (Baku), and Derbent in this period.

Slaves as Gifts to Accompany Letters: A Critical Study of the Bo’ Abdul Kadim

This study discusses the tradition of letters in the kingdom of Bima, especially concerning giving enslaved people as gifts to accompany letters. The data for this study were taken from the manuscript bundle of bo’ (official royal records) during the reign of Sultan Abdul Kadim Muhammad Shah (1751–1773). Now, the manuscript is part of the collection of the Samparaja Cultural Museum, Bima, West Nusa Tenggara and is coded C.011 Bo. Within the manuscript bundle, we found 117 (out of a total of 548) letters discussing slaves and slavery in the Bima kingdom. We first used philological research methods, then these texts were analysed with historical records to obtain a complete understanding of slaves and slavery in the 18th century AD societal traditions. The results showed that slaves giving as a gift accompanying the letter was a symbol of respect for the recipient of the letter, which was following the Malay correspondence tradition. For local rulers, slaves were the most valuable treasure. Slaves were also a determinant of social status among the nobility in the past. This practice applies not only in Bima but throughout the Malay land and even Southeast Asia.

ՀԱՅԱՍՏԱՆԻՑ ԳՏՆՎԱԾ ՀՆԴԿԱՍՏԱՆԻ ՄԵԾ ՄՈՂՈԼՆԵՐԻ ԴՐԱՄՆԵՐԸ ԵՎ ԴՐԱՆՑ ԴԵՐԸ ՄԻՋԱԶԳԱՅԻՆ ԱՌԵՎՏՐՈՒՄ (ՀԱՅ.) / THE COINS OF THE GREAT MOGHULS OF INDIA FOUND IN ARMENIA AND THEIR ROLE IN INTERNATIONAL TRADE

An important source for studying Armenian history is not only the coins of Armenian and foreign rulers minted in Armenia, but also coins that came to Armenia from distant countries, some of which came here as a result of trade activities. From this point of view, the gold and silver coins of the Great Mughals of India found in Armenia are of great interest. There are few of them, but the existing facts need analysis and assessment. This work examines the coins of the Great Mughals, which were found on the territory of the Republic of Armenia and stored in the History Museum of Armenia. In 1983, a hoard consisting of 203 Persian silver and 6 Indian gold coins was discovered in the village of Ferik, Armavir province. Three of the Indian coins belong to the Great Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb (1069-1118 = 1658-1707), and the remaining three belong to Muhammad Shah (1131-1161 = 1719-1748). The loss of hoard occurred in the middle of the 18th century. Mughal gold coins are called mohurs. These coins were in circulation in India, Nepal and Afghanistan. They were first meanted by Akbar around 1562. The coin was of very high quality and weighed about 11 g. Mohur, like other Muslim coins, had no images and contained only ornaments and inscriptions. Since the time of Aurangzeb, the year of issue appears on them. The Mughal Empire ruled much of northern India and South Asia for three centuries, from the early 16th century to the mid-18th century. It had an economy based on a stable currency of gold, silver and copper.

Biography of Sultan Muhammad Shah II as the 12th Sultan of Terengganu

This study emphasizes the biography of Sultan Muhammad Shah II as the 12th Sultan of Terengganu. Sultan Muhammad Syah II assumed the leadership of Terengganu in November 1918 after the passing of his father, Al Marhum Sultan Zainal Abidin III, until May 1920. From an early age, Tengku Muhammad was nominated as Tengku Kecik Muda and was subsequently elected as Raja Muda or Yang Dipertuan Muda. When he was 30 years old, Your Highness was assigned as the 12th sultan of Terengganu. Having a good biography and personality convinces that the government that stands conducted will also be good. These refute the British claim that Sultan Muhammad Shah II was a frightened leader and did not have high supervision power. Therefore, to unravel the biography of Sultan Muhammad Syah II, the acquisition of data is focused on primary sources such as documents and manuscripts from the British Adviser of Terengganu, the Secretary of the Government of Terengganu, the Office of the Sultan of Istana Badariah, and the Office of the Chief Minister. In addition to the primary sources, secondary sources such as journals and books are being used to strengthen the research findings obtained from the National Archives of Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur, and Terengganu branches. In addition, data was also obtained from the Terengganu State Museum and Terengganu State Public Library. This source proves that Sultan Muhammad Shah II, in his youth, had a high attitude and went on to serve as an authoritarian and responsible leader.

Socio-Political Contribution of Sir Agha Khan III for Indian Muslims: An Overview

Sir Sultan Muhammad Shah Aga Khan III, a renowned Muslim leader, was instrumental in the freedom movement in Pakistan and provided significant support for Muslims in India. He was ideally positioned to play a big role in the international affairs of his time because of his extensive understanding of several cultural traditions, and his long public career had numerous facets. This study examines the contributions of Sir Sultan Muhammad Shah, Agha Khan III with particular attention to the social reforms and political achievements of his life. The article sheds light on his role in the Pakistan Movement as well as his social services for the boost up of Indian Muslims. This study is basically qualitative in nature and a descriptive method with a historical approach is applied.

Socio-Political Contribution of Sir Agha Khan III for Indian Muslims: An Overview

Sir Sultan Muhammad Shah Aga Khan III, a renowned Muslim leader, was instrumental in the freedom movement in Pakistan and provided significant support for Muslims in India. He was ideally positioned to play a big role in the international affairs of his time because of his extensive understanding of several cultural traditions, and his long public career had numerous facets. This study examines the contributions of Sir Sultan Muhammad Shah, Agha Khan III with particular attention to the social reforms and political achievements of his life. The article sheds light on his role in the Pakistan Movement as well as his social services for the boost up of Indian Muslims. This study is basically qualitative in nature and a descriptive method with a historical approach is applied.

Konflik Abad 11-12 M: Pertikaian Dinasti Mongol dengan Dinasti Khawarizm di Asia Tengah

The Mongol dynasty originated from the mainland region of Mongolia. With the leadership under Chengis Khan, the Mongols experienced greatness. The Mongol dynasty had experienced temporary trade relations with the Khawarizm dynasty. At that time, the Khawarizm dynasty was led by the sultan Al al-Din Muhammad Shah. The advancement of culture, especially in the field of weaponry of the Khawarizm dynasty, caused Chengis Khan to be amazed and interested in conducting trade relations with the Khawarizm dynasty. However, after Chengis Khan ordered the Mongol trade ambassadors to come to Khawarizm, Chengis Khan's envoys were massacred and killed. So that the purpose of compiling this article is to explain the conflict that occurred between the Mongol dynasty and the Khawarizm dynasty which had a considerable impact on Muslims. The method of preparing the articles used is literature study. The results and discussion include the causes of conflict between the Mongol dynasty and the Khawarizm dynasty, the attacks carried out by Chengis Khan against Khawarizm, the chronology of the conflict, and the impact of the conflict between the two dynasties.

Seasonal monitoring of River through heavy metal bioaccumulation and histopathological alterations in selected fish organs

Heavy metal discharge is the primary cause of freshwater pollution, harming fish health. This research was planned to calculate the seasonal variations in metal (Pb, Cu, and Ni) bioaccumulation in different tissues of Gills, Liver, Kidney, and Muscle from Cirrhinus mrigala sampled from River Chenab from an area of high-intensity pollution near Thatta Muhammad Shah. The results revealed significant (P ≤ 0.5) variations in metals bioaccumulation in different seasons. The lowest level of selected metals was observed in winter, whereas the maximum level was noted in the summer. The concentration of selected heavy metals differed seasonally. During winter Pb concentration distribution in descending order was observed in liver (0.823 ± 0.009 ppm) > kidney(0.817 ± 0.011 ppm) > muscle(0.758 ± 0.009 ppm) > gills(0.742 ± 0.011 ppm). Whereas, in summer it was noted as liver (1.726 ± 0.066 ppm) > gills (1.633 ± 0.060 ppm) > kidney (1.575 ± 0.051 ppm) > muscle (1.532 ± 0.050 ppm). While during winter, the bioaccumulation of Cu in organs was noted with descending order of kidney (1.88 ± 0.038) > liver(1.75 ± 0.037) > gills (1.67 ± 0.043) > muscle (1.45 ± 0.031)ppm, while in summer, it was gills (2.85 ± 0.071) > kidney (2.84 ± 0.082) > liver (2.83 ± 0.068) > muscle (2.72 ± 0.065) ppm. In winter, the Ni bioaccumulation with descending order was in the kidney (7.83 ± 0.139) > liver (7.68 ± 0.159) > muscle (7.63 ± 0.162) > gills (7.61 ± 0.129)ppm and in a season of summer, it was detected as in kidney (8.71 ± 0.129) > muscle (8.59 ± 0.131) > liver (8.56 ± 0.141) > gills (8.56 ± 0.131) ppm. All studied heavy metals were found to be above the WHO permissible limits. Histopathological evaluation of fish tissues has been considered an important indicator of environmental pollution monitoring. Histology of kidney and liver tissues showed congestion, necrosis, dilation in Bowman capsule space, while liver showed necrosis, cytoplasmic vacuolation, and sinusoid dilation. This study revealed that the Chenab River is being polluted due to the untreated discharge of industrial effluents and sewage runoff from the city, and these heavy metals from anthropogenic pollution load have adverse effects on the fish population in the river system.

Chronological Paradoxes of Mohammed Shah Bey’ Turbe in the Bahchisaray Town

According to the memorial inscription without date, which is above the entrance, someone Muhammad Shah Bey ordered to build a turbe for his mother – Bey Yude Sultan. Traditionally, it is considered one of the earliest Muslim memorial buildings in Crimea and usually dates back to the 14th–15th centuries. The building is constantly cited as an example as the closest analogy during considering a some group of Golden Horde monuments – the Eastern and Northern mausoleums of Bolgar, the mausoleum of Tura Khan in Bashkiria. According to the results of excavations in 1991, the building was dated to the end of the 18th century (near 1778). These conclusions are based on numismatic material, a number of specifically signs and, mainly, stratigraphy. Scurf of the building horizon was overlapped by a layer of destroyed build mortar. This top layer is associated with the destruction and restoration of the turbe. Between themselves, these two stratigraphic periods are separated only by thin crust of trampled soil. This gives reason to think that the mausoleum was built shortly before the damage, which caused the loss of the masonry of the upper part of the main facade and roof. Otherwise, if dated the building by the 14th–15th centuries, then during the next three or four centuries a wide cultural layer would have to accumulate near its walls, above the foundation. But archaeological excavations have not revealed such layer.

A Study of Relations between Mughal India and the Ottoman Empire 1556-1748

In India, relationship with Ottoman was not found until the foundation of the Mughal empire in the early sixteenth century that India was able to break this self-imposed isolation from the outside world. Several factors were responsible for this momentous development. The present study is, therefore, a pioneering effort. It seeks to fill a gap in the Indian and Ottoman historical literature. Two fundamental questions guide this study. First, what factors determined Mughal policy towards the Ottoman empire? Was it guided by the interests of the Mughal state? Or was it governed by the whims, passions, and prejudices of the Mughal Emperors? Second, did Mughal relations with the Safavids, the Uzbeks, and the Sharifs of Mecca have any bearing on Mughal-Ottoman relations? The present study discussed the three major aspects. The first aspect is the Mughal empire's political and diplomatic relations with Istanbul from its beginning in 1556 to Emperor Shahjahan's deposition in 1658. The second aspect relates to the story of the Mughal-Ottoman relations from the accession of Aurangzeb in 1658 to the death of Muhammad Shah in 1748. The third aspect includes Mughal relations with the Sharifs of Mecca.

Nadir Şah'ın Afganistan Seferi ve Burada Kurduğu Düzen

Nadir Shah, appeared in the first half of the 18th century on the stage of history in today-Iran, left a deep impression on the history of Iran, Ottoman Turkey, Caucasus, Turkestan and India. One of the places where he left his mark is today-Afghanistan territory. Nader Shah sent ambassador to Muhammad Shah to reclaim the Afghan looters who had fled to India. However, Muhammad Shah did not respond positively. Thereupon Nader Shah marched on the territory of Afghanistan with a large army before going out to the expedition to India. On 3 February 1737, Nader Shah left a military unit in Sistan and proceeded to Kandahar through the road of Delhek and Dilaram. When the Afghans in the garrison resisted Nader Shah’s army when he arrived at the Gereshk Fort, Afsharid artillery opened fire on the high walls of the fort and besieged the city of Kandahar. After the siege lasting eleven months, Kandahar was conquered on 10 April 1737. After conquering Kandahar, his son Reza Quli Khan was sent to conquer the Afghanistan’s northern lands. After conquering Kandahar, Nader Shah took control of Ghazna, Kabul, Jalalabad, and Peshawar on 4 December 1738. Through this conquest, the endless clashes between the Uzbeks and the Baburids in today-Afghanistan ended, the disputes between the tribes were resolved, so that the people gained peace and tranquillity, and the plundering and looting were eliminated. In addition, Nadir Shah, as well as the zoning and settlement activities in the country, has made an effort to become this place as a science centre. This article will focus on the administrative and social order established by Nader Shah in Afghanistan after the conquest.

PERKEMBANGAN ISLAM DI BRUNEI

Brunei has existed since at least the 7th or 8th century. In the history mentioned Islam has come to Brunei since the 7th century, which at that time Brunei has become a center of trade. The king of Brunei Malay kingdom since Sultan Muhammad Shah (1383), is a Muslim sultan who leads the kingdom as well as religious leaders, and is responsible for upholding the implementation of religious teachings in the region. This paper will discuss the development of Islam and the dynamics of Malay politics, religion and traditions in Brunei Darussalam to the present, including how Brunei Islam can pass through the British colonial era with unique conditions, even as they respect Britain as the savior of their country. Brunei reached its heyday from the fifteenth to the seventeenth century at the time of the Bolkiah Sultan, who ruled the entire island of Borneo and the Philippine archipelago, before the arrival of European colonial nations. Together with Malaysia, Brunei was colonized by Britain, and since 1888 the Kingdom of Brunei is a British Commonwealth. After Malaysia Merdeka (1957), Brunei declared its independence on January 1, 1984 from Malaysia. Although not a vast country. Brunei is an Islamic state that plays an important role in maintaining Islamic values in society. This is the success of the mosque coaching program and the advancement of religious education as a top priority. The Malay Muslim Kingdom of Brunei Darussalam made Islam its national ideology to implement Sunni Islam (Ahlussunnah Waljamaah), to obey the king, and to live the life of Darussalam as a Malay nation. In fact, all the activities of the kingdom and government rules serve to strengthen the existence of Islam. The threat of Islam that can disrupt the stability of the country is a radical movement. The government has banned sectarian Islamic sects such as al-Arqam and others, so that Brunei remains a Darussalam, a safe, prosperous country, and protected from disturbances and chaos.

Jahanpanah’s Jamiʿ Masjid (Circa 1343): A Reassessment

Abstract The Begumpuri or Jamiʿ (Friday) Masjid of Jahanpanah (Delhi) is an impressive monument built during the Tughluq period, circa 1343. Although often credited to Firuz Shah (1351–88), the mosque was probably ordered by Muhammad Shah Tughluq (1325–51), since it was situated next to his royal palace in the heart of his capital (Jahanpanah). The Begumpuri Masjid represents a particular phase in the sequence of Tughluq architecture, both for its plan and elevation, and for its architectural decoration. It has often been described as a “Persianate” four-iwan mosque, although such a designation seems inappropriate. This article explores the probable patronage of the mosque by Muhammad Tughluq and its siting at the center of Jahanpanah. The plan and elevation of the mosque are detailed, with a discussion on the possible models for the building, together with its vernacular characteristics. We then present a study of the architectural decoration, made in stone, stucco, and turquoise glazed tiles. The peculiar features of the Begumpuri Masjid make it a unique monument celebrating the grandeur of Muhammad Tughluq through its huge and void court, as well as in its mulūk khāna (Royal Loggia).

Perkembangan Islam di Brunei

Brunei has existed since at least the 7th or 8th century. In the history mentioned Islam has come to Brunei since the 7th century, which at that time Brunei has become a center of trade. The king of Brunei Malay kingdom since Sultan Muhammad Shah (1383), is a Muslim sultan who leads the kingdom as well as religious leaders, and is responsible for upholding the implementation of religious teachings in the region. This paper will discuss the development of Islam and the dynamics of Malay politics, religion and traditions in Brunei Darussalam to the present, including how Brunei Islam can pass through the British colonial era with unique conditions, even as they respect Britain as the savior of their country. Brunei reached its heyday from the fifteenth to the seventeenth century at the time of the Bolkiah Sultan, who ruled the entire island of Borneo and the Philippine archipelago, before the arrival of European colonial nations. Together with Malaysia, Brunei was colonized by Britain, and since 1888 the Kingdom of Brunei is a British Commonwealth. After Malaysia Merdeka (1957), Brunei declared its independence on January 1, 1984 from Malaysia. Although not a vast country. Brunei is an Islamic state that plays an important role in maintaining Islamic values in society. This is the success of the mosque coaching program and the advancement of religious education as a top priority. The Malay Muslim Kingdom of Brunei Darussalam made Islam its national ideology to implement Sunni Islam (Ahlussunnah Waljamaah), to obey the king, and to live the life of Darussalam as a Malay nation In fact, all the activities of the kingdom and government rules serve to strengthen the existence of Islam. The threat of Islam that can disrupt the stability of the country is a radical movement. The government has banned sectarian Islamic sects such as al-Arqam and others, so that Brunei remains a Darussalam, a safe, prosperous country, and protected from disturbances and chaos.

POLITICAL DECLINE VS CULTURAL GROWTH OF LATE MUGHALS’ CAPITAL: DELHI UNDER THE RULE OF MUHAMMAD SHAH (1719–1748)

The article focuses on two contradictory trends of Muhammad Shah’s reign in India (1719–1748), namely, the increasing political decline of the once mighty Mughal Empire along with a palpable cultural growth of its capital.

Poligami dalam Teori Hermeneutika Muhammad Shahrûr

Muhammad Shah}rûr was a liberal philosopher from Suriah. Most scholars who study Shahrûr’s thought split into 3 phases of his thinking. The first phase, 1970 - 1980 is the contemplation phase. This phase is more influenced by the thought of <em>taqlîd</em> which is inherited and present in the old Islamic heritage and modern one, as well as a tendency in the Islamic ideology (<em>‘Aqîdah</em>) either in the form of <em>kalâm</em> and <em>fiqh</em> schools. The second phase is between the years of 1980 - 1986 is the phase where Shahrûr began to deliver his ideas and his interest into language studies, philosophy and understanding of the Qur’an. The third phase is between the years of 1986 - 1990 which Shahrûr began intensively arranges his thoughts in the topic of Islamic thoughts. In some aspects of his interpretation, He rejected Prophet Muhammad’s <em>asbâb al-nuzûl</em> and it’s temporarily limit, and strengthen the arguments the rejecters of divine revelation as a verse just resting on his <em>asbâb al-nuzûl</em> itself.

ChemInform Abstract: Novel 1,2,3‐Triazole‐Bisphenol‐Based Macrocycle Synthesized Through Click Chemistry.

ChemInformVolume 45, Issue 20 Heterocyclic Compounds ChemInform Abstract: Novel 1,2,3-Triazole-Bisphenol-Based Macrocycle Synthesized Through Click Chemistry. Burhan Khan, Burhan Khan Int. Cent. Chem. Sci., H. E. J. Res. Inst. Chem., Univ. Karachi, Karachi 75270, Pak.Search for more papers by this authorSaid Nadeem, Said Nadeem Int. Cent. Chem. Sci., H. E. J. Res. Inst. Chem., Univ. Karachi, Karachi 75270, Pak.Search for more papers by this authorMuhammad Shah, Muhammad Shah Int. Cent. Chem. Sci., H. E. J. Res. Inst. Chem., Univ. Karachi, Karachi 75270, Pak.Search for more papers by this authorSammer Yousuf, Sammer Yousuf Int. Cent. Chem. Sci., H. E. J. Res. Inst. Chem., Univ. Karachi, Karachi 75270, Pak.Search for more papers by this authorNuman Hoda, Numan Hoda Int. Cent. Chem. Sci., H. E. J. Res. Inst. Chem., Univ. Karachi, Karachi 75270, Pak.Search for more papers by this author Burhan Khan, Burhan Khan Int. Cent. Chem. Sci., H. E. J. Res. Inst. Chem., Univ. Karachi, Karachi 75270, Pak.Search for more papers by this authorSaid Nadeem, Said Nadeem Int. Cent. Chem. Sci., H. E. J. Res. Inst. Chem., Univ. Karachi, Karachi 75270, Pak.Search for more papers by this authorMuhammad Shah, Muhammad Shah Int. Cent. Chem. Sci., H. E. J. Res. Inst. Chem., Univ. Karachi, Karachi 75270, Pak.Search for more papers by this authorSammer Yousuf, Sammer Yousuf Int. Cent. Chem. Sci., H. E. J. Res. Inst. Chem., Univ. Karachi, Karachi 75270, Pak.Search for more papers by this authorNuman Hoda, Numan Hoda Int. Cent. Chem. Sci., H. E. J. Res. Inst. Chem., Univ. Karachi, Karachi 75270, Pak.Search for more papers by this author First published: 28 April 2014 https://doi.org/10.1002/chin.201420174Read the full textAboutPDF ToolsRequest permissionExport citationAdd to favoritesTrack citation ShareShare Give accessShare full text accessShare full-text accessPlease review our Terms and Conditions of Use and check box below to share full-text version of article.I have read and accept the Wiley Online Library Terms and Conditions of UseShareable LinkUse the link below to share a full-text version of this article with your friends and colleagues. Learn more.Copy URL Share a linkShare onFacebookTwitterLinked InRedditWechat No abstract is available for this article. Volume45, Issue20May 20, 2014 RelatedInformation

Identity Politics Revisited: Secular and ‘Dissonant’ Islam in Colonial South Asia

AbstractThis paper analyzes the political project of secular Islam as outlined by the Indian political and religious leader, Muhammad Shah—also known as Aga Khan III (1877–1957). As first president of the All India Muslim League, Muhammad Shah facilitated the installation of separate electorates for Muslims as well as the call for Partition. The reformist notion of Islam he invoked for this separatist programme was informed by the secular and modernizing projects of the colonial public sphere. Simultaneously, however, Muhammad Shah claimed a divine role as Imam of the Ismaili Muslim community—a position validated by Ismaili beliefs and teachings of messianic Islam. The paper engages Muhammad Shah's writings and the devotional texts of the Ismailis to illustrate how the heterogeneous forms of practices peculiar to the vernacular history of Islam in early modern South Asia were displaced by the discourse of religious identity in the colonial period.

The Kayanid crown and Qajar reclaiming of royal authority

In the first surviving portrait of Fath ᶜAli Shah (r. 1797-1834) as the Qajar sovereign, painted in 1213/1797-98, just after his accession, the young shah appears with a turban-like cap decorated with a plumed jiqqa (aigrette, fig. 1). The so-called Kayanid crown, a creation of his uncle and predecessor, Aqa Muhammad Shah Qajar (1785-97), is missing. In contrast to most other royal portraits of the later years, here in this majestic work by the master painter, Mirza Baba Shirazi, the shah poses on what appears to be a platform throne covered with a carpet, though at the time there was no Qajar royal throne in existence. The absence of the crown and the throne, the most conspicuous symbols of kingly authority, made the young Fath ᶜAli Shah a crown-and-throne-less king (bī tāj va takht), a synonym for utter powerlessness in the Persian political culture.

Of Imârat and Tijârat: Asian Merchants and State Power in the Western Indian Ocean, 1400 to 1750

How best might one address the relationship between trade and state building in early modern South Asia? The question is hardly a new one. To some, like Anand Ram ‘Mukhlis’ (d. 1751), a Khatri from northern India who, though not Muslim, had been educated in Persian letters and accounting (siyâgat), trade was more honourable and safer than statecraft or government. The fortunes of the nobility were fluctuating ones, and the means by which they had been accumulated were of a questionable legitimacy. Doubts of this sort did not of course prevent his Khatri brethren from entering into government service during the later Mughal period, and several of them can be counted among the a'yân (notables) of the reign of the Mughal, Muhammad Shah (1719–48) (Alam 1986:169–75). They maintained a tradition begun in the reign of Ak-bar with the famous Raja Todar Mal (d. 1589), also a Khatri from the Punjab.