Mughal Empire Research Articles

STUDY OF TRANSFORMATION OF JHAROKHA WINDOW FORM IN LAHORE

The traditional architecture of any area embodies its true character, deeply rooted in the history, geography, and culture of that region. It does not only satisfy the functional requirements but also stems from local construction techniques and materials available. Traditional architecture faces the problem of its coexistence with modern technological development everywhere. The built heritage which stands in Lahore over centuries is encroached by modern and efficient techniques. The present paper specifically focuses on the development of Jharokha windows (Bay windows) in Lahore. The Jharokha window that was used in the Indian sub-continent during and after the Mughal period was the solution to the climatic conditions of the region. This research will investigate the old Jharokha window form and how with technology and advancement it starts losing its original form. The change in Jharokha form will be studied by the existing examples from different time periods available in the city of Lahore.

Epidemics Diseases in the Mediaeval India “Some Examples in Baburnama”

Health problems have been the common problem of all civilizations since the beginning of human history. At the point of diagnosis and treatment of these health problems, each civilization has endeavored to develop its own methods and continues to do so. Therefore, as in every region of the world, the societies living in medieval India were exposed to various diseases and developed their own treatment methods for the treatment of these diseases. In this study, some of the diseases and treatment methods encountered in medieval India, especially in the Mughal period, have been tried to be analyzed. However, since it is not possible to cover a whole period in a single article, only the diseases mentioned in Babur Shah's memoir, Baburnama, and the medical methods used in the treatment of these diseases are discussed. We believe that our examination of the diseases and treatment methods mentioned in this work, which has an important place in terms of both Turkish-Islamic history and Indian history, will contribute to the scientific researches to be carried out in similar fields and, for example, to make a comparison in the old-new context in terms of diagnosis and treatment of diseases such as poisoning, malaria, fever, dehydration, wound care, respiratory infections, horse epidemics, rheumatoid arthritis.

The Mansabdari System of Mughal Empire: A Critical Analysis

The Mansabdari system was primarily a mechanism to institutionalize the Mughal administration with great emphasis on the military organization through numerical method. The efficiency of the system was based on the continuous maintenance of the required number of contingent with the assigned source of income namely jagir. Thus, the very nature of the system necessitated the accurate assessment of the revenue of each and every jagir, so that the allotment of certain jagirs could be made in accordance with the military contingents to be maintained by the Mansab holders. This is the core and crucial point which triggered all kinds of problem in the system. Therefore, the problems of the system range from the land measurement, revenue assessment, and pay schedule to the decline in the obligations and finally keeping fictitious relevance of the system with several modifications without breaking away with that.

Reevaluating the Religio-Political Policies of Aurangzeb Alamgir: A Critical Insight from Indian Historians

Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb Alamgir ruled the Indian Sub-Continent for the best part of five decades. The Mughal Empire flourished under his rule, particularly in the spheres of economy, administration and territorial extension, by maintaining exemplary religio-political harmony, unmatched political stability, and cultural development. He was a devout Sunni Muslim and a disciple of the Naqshbandī order. With such an affiliation, he sought to rule his Empire In accordance with the injunctions of Islam. Resultantly, the Hindus felt deprived of the religious freedom which they had enjoyed during the reigns of his predecessors Akbar (r.1556-1605), Jahangir (r.1605-28), and Shah Jahan (r. 1628-58). After the demise of Alamgir in 1707, the Mughal Empire started declining gradually. Many Indian historians have criticized the policies of Alamgir and attributed them as the primary cause of the gradual disintegration of Mughal rule. This research focuses on three major policies of Aurangzeb, namely, temple destruction, re-imposition of jizya, and dismissal of Hindus from the state services. After content analysis of selected Indian historians who mainly focused on the religious outlook of Aurangzeb, this research has made an attempt to counterbalance the allegations leveled against him by Indian historians. Aurangzeb had nothing to do with his non-Muslim subjects concerning his religious zeal but merely pretended to rule the state administration with the injunctions of Islam, aiming to draw military support from the orthodox Muslims against the Shias and the Marathas with the Deccan. He did not deprive them of state services or religious freedom because of his Islamic approach to governance. . His religious policies are not responsible for the gradual decline of the Mughal Empire. He was not as much of a religious bigot as depicted by the Indian historians. 

UNVEILING MUGHAL MINIATURES: TREASURES OF PUDUCHERRY'S ECOLE FRANCAISE D'EXTRÊME-ORIENT

Puducherry, one of India's storied historic cities, is the custodian of a vast collection of ancient paintings, miniatures, sculptures, historical artifacts and more. These treasures are meticulously preserved within government offices, museums, art galleries and hotels. This research project narrows its focus to a select group of Mughal period miniatures drawn from this rich and diverse cultural reservoir.The Ecole Francaise d'Extrême-Orient, a renowned French research institute, is located on Rue Dumas Street in Puducherry and is fully dedicated to the thorough investigation of Indian culture, history and society. The institution was established in Puducherry in 1950 and it houses paintings, miniatures, sculptures and antiques in its basement. It is believed to contain about 35 priceless paintings. This amazing collection includes a wide range of artistic genres and materials, from paper and ivory to wooden frames, metal plates and even terracotta surfaces. Among these artworks, the most notable are the ivory miniatures dating back to the Mughal period."The researcher's objective is to examine five specific portraits featuring three-quarter busts of women and love scenes within these ivory Mughal miniature paintings. These artworks offer a concise yet profound glimpse into the rich tapestry of Indian culture and heritage. The depiction of women's attire showcases the diversity and elegance inherent in Indian fashion, while the portrayal of love scenes celebrates the cultural significance of romance and emotional connections, thus emphasizing India's deep-rooted cultural traditions. The meticulous detailing within these works underscores the exceptional artistry of Indian artisans, while the expressions and postures of the depicted characters provide valuable insights into the societal norms and values of the era. In essence, these miniature paintings encapsulate the multifaceted essence of Indian heritage."Employing a rigorous combination of fieldwork and historical research methodologies, this research endeavor seeks to illuminate the origins, historical contexts, aesthetic attributes, stylistic intricacies and technical craftsmanship inherent in these Mughal era miniatures. Additionally, this study aspires to unveil the intricate tradition, dynamic evolution and profound cultural significance embodied by this cherished art form.

Political and social life in India during the Mughal era

عرفت بلاد الهند كونها تمثل قوميات واجناس مختلة شملت الديانات التقاليد والعادات الاجتماعية قبل الإسلام وبقيت قسم منها بعد مجيء الفتح الإسلامي لها سيما في عصر سلاطين المغول وحظيت الأعياد والمناسبات الدينية والاجتماعية مكانة مرموقة عند السلاطين المغول الذين تركوا بصمة واضحة مثلت الدين الإسلامي هناك كما كان للمرأة دور سياسي واجتماعي مميز في بلاد الهند والحال نفسه في بقية شعوب الهند ذات الطبقات والاجناس المختلفة

The Evaluation of the Status of Women in Mughal India

There are several misconceptions in modern society about the Mughal Empire, and even more so about the women in the empire. Modern society also often overlooks the role of women in Mughal society and politics, underestimating their power. So, the aim of this research article is to evaluate the status of women in the Mughal Empire. We will be doing so by looking at three main aspects: Socioeconomic and political roles, Access to Education and the Influence of religion and culture. We will be drawing conclusions from previous research, journal articles and a few primary sources such as biographies, memoirs, and artworks. Through this article, we can de-mystify and clear the fog of misinformation surrounding the lives of women in the Mughal period.

Transgenders of the Mughal Empire in Hindustani Cinema: Politics of Representations in Period Films

Transgender identities and sexualities find a visibly accepted presence in the medieval history of India, especially in the Mughal era. Historical accounts and studies have indicated the prestige and power enjoyed by the third gender in the Mughal Empire to the extent that some of the writings have located them as an integral part of Mughal courts of law, holding some key positions of the royal palaces. In the extant literature on transgender, the analysis of their position as depicted through Hindustani Cinema in the Mughal period remains inadequate. The cinematic representation of the transgenders in the Mughal period can certainly offer a wide window to analyse their status in the given era, as this period has been documented as one of the most liberal periods for the transgender in Indian History. The present article aims to fill this gap through a mise-en-scene analysis of Hindustani Cinema based on the Mughal Empire during the twentieth and twenty-first centuries. The Hindustani Cinema has offered a marginalised space on-screen to transgender people for a long time by putting them only in humorous and comic roles. By providing an intense analysis of all the films based on the Mughal period in Hindustani Cinema, the present article argues that even period films are not devoid of the politics of representation of contemporary times.

Pursuing Profit: An Insight into the Notion, Ethics and Practices of a Trader as Depicted in the Ardhakathanaka

It is a general belief that when a person undertakes any business enterprise, he calculates profit as his ultimate aim. Profit is defined as the monetary gain made by a person by selling something for more than it costs him. As per the norms of the economic concept of medieval Europe, moral scruples such as greed and avarice were associated with the notion of profit. This in turn acted as a hindrance to pursue profit while undertaking the profession of business. In the sixteenth century, due to Calvinism, the life of business was given a new sanctity. In the context of India, we can anchor the fact that the calculation of profit was an integral aspect of the existence of the community of bania. This can be established with the help of a study of the Ardhakathanaka—an autobiographical memoir. It was written by Banarasidas in A.D. 1641 ( V.S. 1698) when he was living at Agra. Banarasidas was a middle-class Jain merchant. While understanding the notion of profit, the present article looks into the aspect of whether religion acts as a restraint or promotes business as a profession. It enables us to seek an insight into the mercantile world of the early sixteenth and late seventeenth centuries. This was also the time when the Mughal Empire was in its heyday. The Ardhakathanaka is an invaluable contemporary source; hence, it has great historical value. Profit being an integral aspect of mercantile life, this feature is explicitly highlighted in the Ardhakathanaka. We get to know about the motives and methods employed by the bania community to earn profit. Despite providing immense, crucial information associated with mercantile life, historians have not highlighted this aspect of the Ardhakathanaka. The article is an attempt to draw the gaze of historians to a primary source providing vital first-hand information regarding the motives and methods in the pursuit of profit during the medieval period.

Persian Garlands of Stars: Islamicate and Indic Astral Sciences in Seventeenth-Century North India

Abstract This paper offers a study of Mullā Farīd and Mullā Ṭayyib, two astronomers active in several North Indian courts in the first half of the seventeenth century. The lives and works of these two brothers illustrate the central role of mathematical astronomy and astrology in the science of the time and its use by Indian Muslim nobility. They also document the familiarity of Indian Muslim scholars with Indic astrology and its practice in Muslim milieux. Mathematical astronomy was very much alive in seventeenth-century Mughal India, and Persian-writing scholars were commenting and revising the astronomical data and mathematics transmitted from the Maragha and Samarqand schools of astronomy. Their intellectual activities are also better understood in the context of the avid interest in occult sciences cultivated by early modern Persianate societies, and more particularly by the Mughal court. Mathematical astronomy was nurtured for the precise purpose of casting horoscopes and creating astrological almanacs. Astrological practices in North-Indian courts, including Delhi, the Mughal imperial capital, were evidently mixed and flavoured with elements from both Islamicate and Indic traditions. Knowledge was widely shared across languages and scientific interests went well beyond religious denominations. Crucially too, the exchange between the Persian and the Sanskrit scholastic worlds was sponsored by Mughal patrons and resulted in scientific translations from one language to the other. A closer reading of Mullā Farīd and Mullā Ṭayyib’s Persian works allows us to see that besides their more classical astronomical works, the two brothers shared a common interest in Indic methods of prognostication, in particular muhūrtaśāstra, the science of electing an auspicious moment to perform a certain action. In this paper, we elucidate an intricate dossier on the “bust hours,” an ancient prognostication method popular with Islamicate astrologers. Identified by Islamicate scholars as coming ultimately from India, the source of many features of Islamicate astrology, these bust hours were reinterpreted on Indian soil by Mullā Farīd and Mullā Ṭayyib in light of their first-hand knowledge of muhūrtaśāstra. In this manner, these bust hours came back full circle to the original Indian prognostication practices.

Safavid and Mughal Empires in Contact

In the introduction to this special issue, the editors attempt to portray the emergence/formation of a pluralistic atmosphere in Mughal India in the early modern era as a reciprocate reaction beginning with the migration of a group of not entirely religiously open-minded Iranian scholars to a not yet pluralistic Mughal India. They point out that the migration of Iranian scholars to Mughal India both enhanced the plurality of the Mughal intellectual atmosphere and their own openness. They then highlight some significant characteristics of the new/newly emerged discourse in the Mughal empire, such as pluralism, rationalism, antiquarianism, and Persianization. The editors moreover endeavor to point out these characteristics in the processes investigated by the authors of the special issue.

Comparison of Homing Behavior and Morphology of Pakistani Highflyer Pigeons: Searching the Unique Genetic Traits

Pigeon breeding is culturally significant worldwide, including in Pakistan, where highflyers have been valued because of their exceptional flight capabilities and genetic traits. The Present study aimed at exploring the unique genetic traits. Eight representative pigeons of different breeds were selected, which include Teddy, kalsira, lakha, kamghar, Sialkoti, Salar, Cheena Chapra and Golden. The total time for training was 7 weeks, and after the training, data from two successive releases was recorded. The starting time for the flight and the landing back to home time was also recorded. It was seen that the Sialkoti pigeon breed fly with exceptional ability of 11hr27min during first release, followed by Teddy pigeons that flew about 1hour and 9min, and Kalsira (an ancient breed from the Mughal era) flew at about 10hr 04min. The morphological parameters (plumage colour, Iris colour, head type, tarsi, claws colour) were also examined. This study is important in two aspects. Culturally, this study shows highflyers' importance in preserving traditional knowledge of Punjab heritage. From a scientific point of view, this study contributes to understanding the genetic conservation of avian genetics and flight behaviour. Further research on the molecular level may confirm the present studies.

Book review: Farhat Hasan, Paper, Performance, and the State: Social Change and Political Culture in Mughal India

Farhat Hasan, Paper, Performance, and the State: Social Change and Political Culture in Mughal India. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2021, xv+155 pp.

The Safavid EmpireThe Degradation of Political Islam

Background. After the end of the khulafaur rasyidin period, the history of Islamic civilization has been marked by the establishment of Islamic dynasties that played a role in the spread of Islam. However, after the Abbasid dynasty was destroyed by the Mongols, the light of Islam was dimmed.
 Purpose. Wars and struggles for Islamic power took place everywhere. Even the books of Islamic science were destroyed.
 Method. The political situation of Muslims as a whole only progressed again after the development of three major empires, namely the Ottoman Empire in Turkey, the Safawi Empire in Persia, and the Mughal Empire in India.
 Results. The name Safawiyah is known in Islamic history as the name of the kingdom located in Iran, before becoming the Safawiyah kingdom this kingdom originated from the tariqah movement in Ardabil, Azerbaijan (Russian territory) which was established simultaneously with the Ottoman Empire in Turkey. Named Safawiyah because it was taken from the name of its founder, Safi al-Din, the Safawiyah kingdom adheres to the Shia school as its state school.
 ConclusionThe founder of the safawiyah kingdom descended from the sixth Shia Imam. The fanaticism of the followers of the safawiyah order who opposed groups other than shia encouraged this movement to enter the political movement. The tendency towards politics emerged during the leadership of Junaid, who added political movements in addition to religious ones

Status of Women in Mughal Period: A Historical Perspective

Women along with man, from time immemorial, has formed an integral part of social structure. Her role in the various walks of life has contributed to the evolution of values which have counted for, what may be described, all round progress. Her status is the measuring yard for assessing the standard of culture of any age. This article examines the right and status of women during Mughal Period in India.In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, Indian society was characterized by patriarchal norms and gender-based disparities, with women facing numerous challenges and limited opportunities.Dependence of women on their husbands or other male relatives was a prominent feature of this period. Females were expected to remain in seclusion and modesty. The status of women in medieval period was not that progressive. The key cause of this was, there was prevalence of male dominance. The women lack in various aspect of day to day live. They were not allowed to express their ideas and views. Women were dedicated towards the implementation of household responsibilities. In addition, they were overwhelmed by the practices of polygamy, sati, child marriage, and female infanticide. However, amidst these constraints, some remarkable women emerged as influential figures in politics, cultural patronage, and economic activities. Their contributions and resilience continue to inspire and shape the narrative of women’s roles and empowerment in history. Improvements came about in their conditions with the advent of Islam and they were given rights.

A Comparison of the Hijra Transgenders Social Status Between the Mughal Empire and the Post-colonial Era

The Hijra population has been suppressed and discriminated against in India on multiple levels of social life. However, this stigmatization toward hijras only begins quite recently. In fact, hijras used to serve a very prominent role in ancient times, especially in the Mughal era. It was not until the British colonization that public attitudes toward hijras start to morph. This paper attempts to illustrate the social status differences of transgender group in Hijra between the Mughal Empire and the post-colonial era. The changes in their social status can be seen in four aspects: main occupations, social exclusion, health and safety condition and regulations that target hijras. This paper finds that the social status of hijras experienced a downturn during the post-colonial era. They are forced into prostitution and begging, which are low-paid and frowned-upon. These jobs put them at high risk of getting infected with venereal diseases and exposed them to sadistic customers that jeopardize their safety. A large number of legislations that deprived hijras of their fundamental rights emerged and gained public acceptance. Additionally, social exclusion in schools and work settings are prevalent. This study enriches peoples understanding of the hijra community, and provides a more holistic view on the shift in social status of hijras. Moreover, it calls on progressive improvements on legislation and social acceptance to protect the human rights of hijras.

Maulana Azad and his memory of the Islamic past: a study of his early writings

AbstractThe article is concerned primarily with Maulana Azad's early political and theological writings with a view to understanding his positions on Islam and the non-Islamic religions. It opens with a brief description of his discussion of Mughal history and religious culture, and then notes his portrayal of Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi (d. 1624) as an exemplary political figure, who raised his voice against Akbar's heresy. This portrayal has had a significant historiographical afterlife. Several modern scholars followed Azad's reading. The article asks whether Azad was truly the first to have such a view of the saint, and thereby influenced the modern writings on Mughal India. We will notice that Sirhindi was already portrayed as a political figure in the Mughal-era historical accounts devoted to him. Azad only chose to work within a certain memory of Sirhindi—but why did he choose to use an earlier tradition and not a purely religious interpretive framework of his own for analysing and presenting the saint's position? The article examines Azad's rationale for such a portrayal in light of his political concerns. It then discusses in some depth the theological discourses in his Tazkira and the early issues of Al-Hilāl.

Investing the Aesthetics of Gulāb Bāgh Gateway: A Diminishing Mughal Monument

The city of Lahore has been controlled by several dynasties throughout course of its history but it reaches its apogee of its splendor under the Mughal Empire between the late 16th and early 18th century and served as its capital city for many years. The Mughals were endowed with remarkably taste for constructing magnificent structures. Gulābi Bāgh gateway is one of those monumental structures, built during Mughal Empire. On the facade of Gulābi Bāgh gateway, there are inscriptions in Persian language which have symbolical connotations. The structure is embellished with frescos painting. The internal worn-out walls are decorated with lotus flowers and cypress tree which also have symbolical representations. There is no doubt that Architectural structures are helpful to understand the chronological notions about the situation of city especially gateways which are erected for so many reasons. This paper is an effort to interpret the meanings from the symbolic inscriptions and embellishments carved on the walls of the magnificent piece of art and architecture i.e Gulabi Bagh. In contemporary period the Mughal architecture is one of those remaining structures which are considered as a heritage of Pakistan. This research also highlights the fact that such buildings are ruined by public who torn up their history by the ancestries and are not even conscious of the loss.

Contribution of Indian Music Towards the Social and Cultural Development After the Independence of India

Music is as old as our civilization. The presence of music / dance in Indus Valley Civilization is evident from some musical instruments, such as the arched or bow-shaped harp and few varieties of drums on terracotta figures and pictographs on the seals. Further, the dancing girl figurine is a testimony to this. However, what kind of music or dance was prevalent that time, we are totally ignorant about it. • Music in Vedic Era • Origin of Sargam • Music in Maurya Era – Buddhist and Jain Sources • Later Development of Indian Music • Brihaddeshi • Influence of Islam • Impact of Bhakti Movement • Mughal Era • 19th century • 20th century • Modern trends in Indian classical music

Studies in the Prophetic Ḥadith and its Sciences in Urdu, Farsi, and Arabic by Indian Muslim Scholars

Various tribes and dynasties in Central Asia who converted to Islam began a long series of conquests in India, but those ties did not last long and did not provide the opportunities for and establishing the close relations between the inhabitants of India and Muslims, but the contacts began to grow and flourish when Muslims began to settle in India as their second home, especially during the Mughal era, which contributed most to the development of Indo-Islamic culture. Islam spread in India because of four things that are conquests, advocacy, occupation and migration, and this spread knew some ebbs and flows. Urdu as a language arose with the efforts of Muslims and now enjoys a wide and rich literature, and it must be considered a part of the other Islamic literatures, because the literary Islamic heritage attributed to the Islamic peoples in all parts of the earth, which was influenced by the language of the Qur’an, the noble Prophetic Ḥadith, various Islamic sciences, history of Islam, Islamic mysticism, and all mental and spiritual currents emanating from Islam. Science of Ḥadith movement weakened at the end of the fourth century, but by the God’s blessing to those people in India who renewed the movement of the Prophet's Sunnah until this country became a center for the science of Ḥadith in the tenth century and beyond. We mention in this article some of those who are famous for their efforts and their knowledge, and the most important Islamic centers and educational institutions briefly.