Mt Of Copper Research Articles

Metal Requirements for Building Electrical Grid Systems of Global Wind Power and Utility-Scale Solar Photovoltaic until 2050.

Wind and solar photovoltaic (PV) power form vital parts of the energy transition toward renewable energy systems. The rapid development of these two renewables represents an enormous infrastructure construction task including both power generation and its associated electrical grid systems, which will generate demand for metal resources. However, most research on material demands has focused on their power generation systems (wind turbines and PV panels), and few have studied the associated electrical grid systems. Here, we estimate the global metal demands for electrical grid systems associated with wind and utility-scale PV power by 2050, using dynamic material flow analysis based on International Energy Agency's energy scenarios and the typical engineering parameters of transmission grids. Results show that the associated electrical grids require large quantities of metals: 27-81 Mt of copper cumulatively, followed by 20-67 Mt of steel and 11-31 Mt of aluminum. Electrical grids built for solar PV have the largest metal demand, followed by offshore and onshore wind. Power cables are the most metal-consuming electrical components compared to substations and transformers. We also discuss the decommissioning issue of electrical grids and their recovery potential. This study would deepen the understanding of the nexus between renewable energy, grid infrastructure, and metal resources.

Thermal History of the Naruo Porphyry Deposit in the Duolong Ore District, Western Tibet: Evidence from U‐Pb, 40Ar/39Ar and (U‐Th)/He Thermochronology

AbstractThe Naruo porphyry copper deposit containing more than 2 Mt of copper is located in the Duolong ore district in the west of the Bangongco–Nujiang belt in central Tibet. New zircon U‐Pb, biotite 40Ar/39Ar, zircon (U‐Th)/He ages, published age data together with thermal modeling were presented in this paper to investigate the thermal history of Naruo deposit. Thermal modeling reveals a prolonged magmatic‐hydrothermal evolution firstly cooling from ∼700°C to ∼350°C at 120 Ma, then cooling to 230°C at 106 Ma and maintaining at 200°C from 106 to 90 Ma which is attributed to multiple magmatic events and thermal effect of strike‐slip fault. Affected by thrust nappe structure, the sample was consistent with 120°C from 70 to 63 Ma. The Naruo deposit started to experience exhumation at a rate of ∼0.07 km/Myr since 60 Ma which is related to India‐Asia collision. The prolonged magmatic‐hydrothermal evolution process might have important influence on the Naruo deposit. The ore‐related intrusions preserved in the foot walls of strike‐slip fault and thrust nappe structure are the objects of future exploration in the Duolong ore district.

Porphyry Copper: Revisiting Mineral Resource Assessment Predictions for the Andes

A mineral resource assessment of porphyry copper deposits in the Andes Mountains of South America was done in 2005 in cooperation with geological surveys in South America. The study identified 590 million metric tons (Mt) of copper in identified resources. Continued exploration and development in the region over a 15-year period provide an opportunity to compare the predicted assessment results with new discoveries and resource growth in previously known deposits. The 2005 assessment estimated that 145 undiscovered deposits could contain a mean of 750 Mt of copper. The actual number of deposits increased (2005 to 2020) from 69 to 120 and the amount of identified copper resources increased from 590 Mt to 1600 Mt. Although most of the new deposits and copper resources are concentrated in Miocene-Pliocene and Eocene-Oligocene mineral belts, new deposits have been discovered in Jurassic and Cretaceous mineral belts. Resource growth in porphyry copper deposits known in the Andes in 2005 (1100 Mt copper) exceeds copper resources in new discoveries since 2005 (490 Mt copper) by a factor of 2.

Future material requirements for global sustainable offshore wind energy development

Offshore wind energy (OWE) is a cornerstone of future clean energy development. Yet, research into global OWE material demand has generally been limited to few materials and/or low technological resolution. In this study, we assess the primary raw material demand and secondary material supply of global OWE. It includes a wide assortment of materials, including bulk materials, rare earth elements, key metals, and other materials for manufacturing offshore wind turbines and foundations. Our OWE development scenarios consider important drivers such as growing wind turbine size, introducing new technologies, moving further to deep waters, and wind turbine lifetime extension. We show that the exploitation of OWE will require large quantities of raw materials from 2020 to 2040: 129–235 million tonnes (Mt) of steel, 8.2–14.6 Mt of iron, 3.8–25.9 Mt of concrete, 0.5–1.0 Mt of copper and 0.3–0.5 Mt of aluminium. Substantial amounts of rare earth elements will be required towards 2040, with up to 16, 13, 31 and 20 fold expansions in the current Neodymium (Nd), Dysprosium (Dy), Praseodymium (Pr) and Terbium (Tb) demand, respectively. Closed-loop recycling of end-of-life wind turbines could supply a maximum 3% and 12% of total material demand for OWE from 2020 to 2030, and 2030 to 2040, respectively. Moreover, a potential lifetime extension of wind turbines from 20 to 25 years would help to reduce material requirements by 7–10%. This study provides a basis for better understanding future OWE material requirements and, therefore, for optimizing future OWE developments in the ongoing energy transition.

Spatiotemporally explicit pathway and material-energy-emission nexus of offshore wind energy development in China up to the year 2060

The temporal dynamics (e.g., pace and scale) and spatial heterogeneity (e.g., turbine location and wind speed) of offshore wind power systems (WPS) are critical to maximize the carbon gains from wind energy development and avoid trade-offs among climate, resources, and waste targets. However, such a spatiotemporally refined understanding of WPS development and the associated material cycle, energy use, and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions is largely missing from the current research. In this study, we deployed a spatialized, technology-specific, stock-driven material flow analysis model to reveal the spatiotemporally explicit pathway of China's offshore WPS development and the associated material-energy-emission nexus up to the year 2060. Our results indicate a cumulative raw material requirement of 96–140 Mt, waste generation of 6.5–48 Mt, net energy payback of 2.9–12 PWh, and net reduction in GHG emissions of 2.9 – 9.7 Gt when substituting coal power until 2060 under different scenario combinations. Specifically, China's future offshore WPS development will need to address the increasing demand for critical materials (e.g., 3.8–5.2 Mt of copper and 55–140 kt of permanent magnets cumulatively until 2060) and challenges for end-of-life management (e.g., 0.3–2 Mt spent blades generated cumulatively until 2060). The spatiotemporally refined results that consider, among other key parameters, water depth and capacity factor at a 1 × 1 km resolution, revealed low values in the northern provinces (e.g., Hebei and Tianjin) and high values in the southern provinces (e.g., Guangdong and Fujian) for material flows, energy payback, and net GHG emission reduction. This combination of spatial and dynamic material flow analyses can also be applied to WPSs in other countries and regions.

Exploration of Polymetallic Nodules and Resource Assessment: A Case Study from the German Contract Area in the Clarion-Clipperton Zone of the Tropical Northeast Pacific

In 2006, the BGR signed a contract with the International Seabed Authority (ISA) for the exploration of polymetallic nodules in the Clarion-Clipperton Zone of the northeast Pacific. During nine expeditions, in particular, “Area E1”, the eastern part of the contract area, with a size of ~60,000 km2, was explored in detail. Here, we outline BGR’s exploration methods and provide resource estimates for Area E1 and three sub-areas. The resource assessment is predominantly based on statistical analyses of data obtained by 12-kHz multibeam bathymetry and backscatter mapping, box core sampling and geochemical analysis of nodules. The main parameter for the assessment is the nodule abundance (kg/m2), as its coefficient of variation (CoV) over the entire eastern contract area is relatively high at 36%. In contrast, the metal contents of nodules show only minor variation, with a CoV of 8% for manganese and 8% for the sum of copper, nickel and cobalt. To estimate mineral resources for the entire Area E1, we used an artificial neural network approach with a multivariate statistical correlation between nodule abundance derived from box cores and hydro-acoustic data. The total estimated resources are 540 ± 189 million tonnes (Mt) of dry nodules, and the total estimated metal contents are 168 Mt of manganese, 7.5 Mt of nickel, 6.3 Mt of copper, 0.9 Mt of cobalt, 0.4 Mt of rare-earth elements and 0.3 Mt of molybdenum. A geostatistical resource estimate of three economically prospective areas with a total size of 4498 km2, intensively sampled by box cores, was carried out using ordinary kriging of nodule abundance and metal grades. Within these three nodule fields, 7.14 Mt of dry nodules are classified as measured mineral resources covering an area of 489 km2. Indicated mineral resources amount to 11.2 Mt, covering an area of 825 km2, and inferred mineral resources of 35.5 Mt of dry nodules were estimated for an area of 3184 km2. In total, the metal contents of the three prospective areas amount to 16.8 Mt of manganese, 0.74 Mt of nickel, 0.63 Mt of copper and 0.09 Mt of cobalt.

Porphyry Cu–Au ± Mo mineralization hosted by potassic igneous rocks: implications from the giant Peschanka porphyry deposit, Baimka Trend (North East Siberia, Russia)

Abstract Porphyry Cu–Au ± Mo mineralization at Peschanka is hosted by monzodiorite and monzonite intrusions with high-K calc-alkaline to shoshonitic compositions and dated at about 144.1 ± 1.5 Ma, using U/Pb zircon ages. The Cretaceous intrusions are emplaced in a melange of Cretaceous island arcs, a tectonic setting comparable with other world-class porphyry Cu–Au deposits, such as Oyu Tolgoi, Mongolia and Pebble, Alaska. Abundant primary magnetite contents of the Peschanka intrusions, as well as numerous gypsum and anhydrite veins, reflect the high oxidation states of their parental magmas. This mineralogical interpretation is confirmed by high whole-rock Fe 2 O 3 /FeO ratios and high V/Sc ratios of the rocks of up to 1.27 and up to 21.9, respectively. The whole-rock Eu/Eu* ratios of the Peschanka intrusions are ≥1 which is also typical for potassic igneous rocks with high oxidation states. Abundant amphibole and biotite phenocrysts of the intrusions as well as their high whole-rock Sr/Y ratios of up to 225 document significantly high H 2 O contents of the high-K magmas. Peschanka contains a resource of >9.5 Mt of copper at an average grade of 0.43 wt% and 16.5 Moz of gold at a high average grade of 0.23 g/t and thus represents one of the largest undeveloped greenfield copper projects worldwide. The vicinity of Peschanka still offers significant brownfield exploration potential. The hypogene vein-related and disseminated Cu–Au ± Mo sulfide mineralization at Peschanka is structurally controlled by significant NE-trending strike-slips that acted as the conduits for the hydrothermal fluids. The central part of the orebody consists of high-grade north–south-trending sheeted quartz–bornite veining with unusually high vein densities. The highest Cu and Au grades are directly correlated with high vein densities. Peschanka is defined by distinct hydrothermal alteration zones including potassic, phyllic, propylitic and argillic assemblages, but a distinct lack of advanced argillic alteration. The mineralization itself is also zoned ranging from a central Mo–Cpy–Bn sulfide assemblage to a peripheral Py–Mt-dominated zone (‘pyrite-shell’). Late-stage polymetallic assemblages overprint and surround the main stockwork zone.

A case study of Ca-rich fluid flow in Nimura Cu-Co mine. DRC, Central African Copperbelt

The Neoproterozoic Central African Copperbelt is the one of the largest sediment-hosted stratiform Cu–Co provinces in the world, with 140 Mt of copper and 6 Mt of cobalt, including several world-class deposits (P10 Mt copper). The Congo and Zambia stratiform deposits have characteristics indicating that syngenetic and early diagenetic processes have controlled the formation of the central Africa Neoproterozoic Copperbelt and studies related to diagenetic processes in sedimentary diagenetic processes where rocks triggered the diagenetic model for copper orebodies. For the dolomitic gangue major element concentrations associated with the second phase of the mineralization in the Nimura mine; the ore deposit has been determined and compared to those enriched, depleted than those, which would have remained immobile during the alteration processes. Moreover, it has been observed that FeO is often enriched, compared to SiO2, whose mass has been decreasing. The circulated fluid was almost carbonated, characterized by CaO, which has remained immobile during the alteration process. The Cu–Co mineralization is at least mainly based in the lower ore body, controlled by lithology, and tectonic. Gangue minerals are mostly dolomite and quartz with accessory Mg–chlorite and muscovite.

Phenocryst Zonation in Porphyry-Related Rocks of the Baguio District, Philippines: Evidence for Magmatic and Metallogenic Processes

Mantle-derived mafic magmas may be the source of ore-forming metals in large Cu porphyry systems, but evidence of primary petrogenetic and metallogenetic processes can be masked by hydrothermal alteration. The Baguio district of Northern Luzon, Philippines is a world-class mineral province containing approximately 40 Moz of gold and 5 Mt of copper, distributed across many porphyry Cu and epithermal Au deposit systems which are spatially related to Pliocene pre-ore Liw-Liw Creek (LCC) basaltic dikes (3·59–4·73 Ma) and a syn-ore plagioclase–hornblende diorite porphyry (2·81–2·98 Ma). A range of phenocryst phases (plagioclase, amphibole and clinopyroxene) are well preserved in both the basaltic dike suite and diorite porphyry suite, and provide an excellent natural laboratory to investigate magmatic processes and the relationship between metallogenesis and mafic magma. Widespread normally zoned clinopyroxene and amphibole grains in the basaltic dike suite show sharp decreases in Mg#, but increasing Mn, Sr, Cu, Y, Zr and REE from core to rim. Mixing of evolved felsic magma into the mafic magma is the most likely cause of these trends as fractional crystallization would typically result in gradual variations. In the diorite porphyry suite, reversely zoned amphibole is characterised by sharp increases in Mg#, Cu and Ni, but decreasing Mn, while oscillatory zoned plagioclase with distinct regions of patchy zonation shows repeated variations of An, Mg, Fe and Sr from core to rim. These signatures indicate the addition of basaltic magma to the diorite porphyry magma. The modeled Mg# of the melts (estimated assuming mineral-melt equilibrium) is also consistent with magma mixing. For example, the high Mg# of 66–72 and low Mg# of 38–44 estimated from the LLC clinopyroxene cores and rims, respectively, support the presence of basaltic magma, mixed with evolved felsic magma. All normally zoned clinopyroxene and amphibole in the basaltic dike suite and reversely zoned amphibole in the diorite porphyry suite show consistent increases in Cu from core to rim, suggesting relative enrichment of Cu in both types of injected magma. The pre-ore basaltic and ore-forming dioritic hybrid melts are estimated to have contained 45–96 ppm and 319–351 ppm Cu, respectively, based on Cu partition coefficients and zone area percentage. The Cu content of the basaltic hybrid melt is typical of arc magmas (Cu 50–100 ppm), whereas the Cu in the dioritic melt was 3–6 times higher than typical arcs magma. Both the clinopyroxene-melt thermobarometer and Al-in-hornblende geobarometer indicate similar crystallization pressures for both suites (8·6∼8·8, 4·4∼4·7, 2·1∼2·8 kbar), suggesting that both pre-ore basaltic and syn-ore dioritic suites formed in different magma chambers at similar depths. The addition of Cu enriched mafic magma may contribute ore-forming elements to the mineralising magmas and significantly increase the mineralization potential of coeval felsic rocks. Studies of phenocrysts have the potential to elucidate the role of magmatic process in the formation of porphyry systems and allow for the recognization of the key characteristics of fertile magmatic systems.

The Mineral Resources of the Bor Metallogenic Zone: A Review

The Bor metallogenic zone is one of the most important metallogenic units in the Republicof Serbia. Volcanic processes in this unit are characterized by the domination of extrusivevolcanic activity, and the change of depositional environment during the numerous volcaniccycles, as well as facial transitions and huge deposition of syn- and post eruptive resedimentedvolcanoclastics. The predominant metals in the Bor metallogenic zone are copperand gold, accompanied by iron, base-metals, silver, molybdenum, and minor platinumgroupelements. The most prominent morphogenetic types of deposit comprise porphyrycopper-gold, cupriferous pyrite, massive base-metal sulphides and hydrothermal veins,iron oxides skarns, carbonate replacement polymetallic deposits, volcanogenic epithermalgold mineralization of the high sulphidation type, and exceptionally rare clasts of coppersulphide ore mechanically accumulated in small sedimentary basins filled by pyroclastics.The total production of the Bor metallogenic zone since 1902 has been near 652 Mt ofore with 4.93 Mt of copper and 280 tons of gold. Mineral resources of the Bor metallogeniczone are estimated at over 20 millions of tons of copper and 1,000 tons of gold. Themain geological characteristics of selected metallic mineral deposits in this area are describedin this paper.

Geology of the Caspiche Porphyry Gold-Copper Deposit, Maricunga Belt, Northern Chile

The Caspiche porphyry gold-copper deposit, part of the Maricunga gold-silver-copper belt of northern Chile, was discovered in 2007 beneath postmineral cover by the third company to explore the property over a 21-year period. This company, Exeter Resource Corporation, has announced a proven and probable mineral reserve of 1,091 million tonnes (Mt) averaging 0.55 g/t Au, all but 124 Mt of which also contain 0.23% Cu, for a total of 19.3 Moz of contained gold and 2.1 Mt of copper. The deposit was formed in the latest Oligocene (~25 Ma) during the first of two volcanic and corresponding metallogenic epochs that define the Maricunga belt. The gold-copper mineralization is centered on a composite diorite to quartz diorite porphyry stock, within which five outward-younging phases are routinely distinguished. The centrally located, early diorite porphyry (phase 1) hosts the highest-grade ore, averaging ~1 g/t Au and 0.4% Cu. The subsequent porphyry phases are quartz dioritic in composition and characterized by progressively lower gold and copper tenors. Stock emplacement was both pre- and postdated by the generation of large-volume, andesite-dominated breccias, with tuffaceous matrices, which are believed to be shallow portions of diatremes. The deposit is characterized by a central gold-copper zone and partially overlapped but noneconomic molybdenum halo. The gold-copper mineralization in the lower half of the deposit accompanies quartz ± magnetite-veined, potassic-altered rocks, whereas the shallower mineralization occurs within quartz-kaolinite–dominated, advanced argillic alteration. Upper parts of the advanced argillic zone are characterized by siliceous ledges, some auriferous, composed of vuggy residual quartz and/or silicified rock. The chalcopyrite-pyrite mineralization in the potassic zone was partially transformed to high sulfidation-state sulfides and sulfosalts during the advanced argillic overprint, although the underlying chalcopyrite-bornite assemblage was mainly too deep to be affected. The deposit terminates downward in a sulfide-deficient, potassic-calcic zone defined by K-feldspar, actinolite, and magnetite, which formed at the expense of biotite. A relatively minor, shallowly inclined zone of intermediate sulfidation epithermal gold-zinc mineralization, comprising narrow veinlets and disseminations, abuts the late-mineral diatreme contact. Supergene sulfide oxidation throughout the deposit is relatively shallow, and chalcocite enrichment extremely minor. The Caspiche deposit is thought to have been emplaced at relatively shallow paleodepths, within the southern, flat-bottomed part of the premineral diatreme vent. Earliest porphyry system development, probably north of the present deposit, appears to have been aborted by diatreme formation. Much of the gold and copper in the Caspiche deposit was introduced during the potassic alteration stage, with the highly telescoped, advanced argillic overprint being responsible for only minor redistribution of the two metals, and the addition of arsenic. The late-mineral diatreme was emplaced west of the Caspiche deposit, and caused destruction of only its uppermost peripheral parts. The late-mineral diatreme was both pre- and postdated by advanced argillic alteration. Finally, the intermediate sulfidation epithermal gold-zinc zone was localized by the enhanced permeability provided by intense fracturing along the underside of the upward-flared, late-mineral diatreme contact.

The Cadia Valley Mines: A Mining Success Story.

Ed Malone. 2011. The Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, Spectrum no. 19, Victoria, Australia. 252 p. ISBN 978-1-9215522-38-3. $70 AUS (also $50 AUS in CD-ROM format). The Cadia Valley Mines: A Mining Success Story is a comprehensive account of the discovery, evaluation, development, and operation of a series of gold-copper orebodies that today comprise Newcrest Mining Limited’s Cadia Valley operations. This is a globally significant cluster of porphyry-style ore deposits hosting at least 44 Moz of gold and 8 Mt of copper, and certainly worthy of the attention to detail provided by the book’s author, the economic geologist Ed Malone. The book is laid out in 25 chapters that cover, in chronological order, a preamble on generic aspects of the Cadia district (geography, geology and mineralization, mining methods, ore reserve estimation methodologies), the pre-Newcrest exploration period, and a detailed account of the Newcrest exploration and discovery phase. This is followed by accounts, from both a technical as well as …

Process Optimization in Copper Electrorefining

Copper is one of the major metallic materials together with steel and aluminum. At present, approx. 11 Mt of copper are produced all over the world by electrorefining in sulfuric acid electrolytes. In the last years the current density could be increased to 320–340 A/m2 by simultaneous improvement of the cathode quality, although the parameters “electrolyte” and “anode quality” did not change essentially. This was possible substantially by modifying the cell design, the starter sheets and the optimization of inhibitors and flow control at the electrodes. Further possibilities to optimize this process are described in this paper.

Waveguide systems

The first telephone transmission route from Reading to Bristol was provided by overhead 400 lb/mile, open-wire copper pairs. To use the same technology to provide equivalent capacity as a waveguide over the same route would require 13 Mt of copper costing £10000 million and 85 million poles. A waveguide will require 15 t of copper and 1000 t of steel. But how does it compare with fibre-optic systems?