Insect Movement Research Articles

Towards noise robust acoustic insect detection: from the lab to the greenhouse

Successful and efficient pest management is key to sustainable horticultural food production. While greenhouses already allow digital monitoring and control of their climate parameters, a lack of digital pest sensors hinders the advent of digital pest management systems. To close the control loop, digital systems need to be enabled to directly assess the state of different insect populations in a greenhouse. The presented article investigates the feasibility of acoustic sensors for insect detection in greenhouses. The study is based on an extensive dataset of acoustic insect recordings made with an array of high-quality microphones under noise-shielded conditions. By mixing these noise-free laboratory recordings with environmental sounds recorded with the same equipment in a greenhouse, different signal-to-noise ratios (SNR) are simulated. To explore the possibilities of this unique and novel dataset, two deep-learning models are trained on this simulation data. A simple spectrogram-based model represents the baseline for a comparison with a model capable of processing multi-channel raw audio data. Making use of the unique possibility of the dataset, the models are pre-trained on clean data and fine-tuned on noisy data. Under lab conditions, results show that both models can make use of not just insect flight sounds but also the much quieter sounds of insect movements. First attempts under simulated real-world conditions showed the challenging nature of this task and the potential of spatial filtering. The analysis enabled by the proposed methods for training and evaluation provided valuable insights that should be considered for future work.

Surprising diversity of stink bugs (Hemiptera: Pentatomoidea) in a Brazilian ocean beach drift: results of a rapid survey

The insect drift is a natural phenomenon characterized by the passive movement of insects through air or water currents, which influences their dispersal. The phenomenon of insect drift in ocean beaches represents one of the best-known cases. One of the prominent insect group associated with ocean beach drifts is the Heteroptera, commonly known as true bugs, stink bugs, and water bugs. In this brief communication, we present the diversity of stink bugs (Pentatomoidea) obtained from a rapid survey on an insect drift event at Campeche Beach, Florianópolis, Brazil. The survey was conducted on December 02, 2021, along a transect of ~550 meters in the shoreline. A total of 363 individuals were collected. From these, 35 species, 29 genera, and three families were identified. Two species represent undescribed taxa. We found several species that can be considered rare in entomological collections, such as Copeocoris truncaticornis (Stål, 1865) (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae), Capivacius bufo Distant, 1883 (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae), Curatia denticornis Stål, 1864 (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae), and Tibilis subconspersa Stål, 1860 (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae), as well as economically important species such as Diceraeus furcatus (Fabricius, 1775) (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae), Thyanta perdidor (Fabricius, 1794) (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae), and Piezodorus guildinii (Westwood, 1837) (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae). Our results underscore the significance of beach drift events, as they provide valuable opportunities to investigate the hidden diversity within particular taxa, bringing new data while unveiling unknown species. Moreover, the presence of two undescribed species reinforces the importance of researching and documenting drift phenomena for taxonomic purposes, shedding light on insect migration and dispersion patterns.

A hierarchical model for external electrical control of an insect, accounting for inter-individual variation of muscle force properties.

Cyborg control of insect movement is promising for developing miniature, high-mobility, and efficient biohybrid robots. However, considering the inter-individual variation of the insect neuromuscular apparatus and its neural control is challenging. We propose a hierarchical model including inter-individual variation of muscle properties of three leg muscles involved in propulsion (retractor coxae), joint stiffness (pro- and retractor coxae), and stance-swing transition (protractor coxae and levator trochanteris) in the stick insect Carausius morosus. To estimate mechanical effects induced by external muscle stimulation, the model is based on the systematic evaluation of joint torques as functions of electrical stimulation parameters. A nearly linear relationship between the stimulus burst duration and generated torque was observed. This stimulus-torque characteristic holds for burst durations of up to 500ms, corresponding to the stance and swing phase durations of medium to fast walking stick insects. Hierarchical Bayesian modeling revealed that linearity of the stimulus-torque characteristic was invariant, with individually varying slopes. Individual prediction of joint torques provides significant benefits for precise cyborg control.

The Effect of Habitat on Insect Movements: Experimental Evidence from Wild-Caught Butterflies.

There is broad evidence that the main driver of the ongoing biodiversity crisis is land-use change, which reduces and fragments habitats. The consequence of habitat fragmentation on behavioural responses of fitness-related traits in insects have been so far understudied. In herbivorous insects, oviposition-related behaviours determine access to larval food, and the fate of the next generation. We present a pilot study to assess differences in behaviours related to movement and oviposition in Limenitis camilla butterflies from Wallonia (Belgium), one of the most fragmented regions in Europe. We first quantified variation in functional habitat connectivity across Wallonia and found that fragmented habitats had more abundant, but less evenly distributed host plants of L. camilla. Secondly, we quantified the behaviours of field-caught L. camilla females originating from habitats with contrasted landscape connectivity in an outdoor experimental setting. We found differences in behaviours related to flight investment: butterflies from fragmented woodlands spent more time in departing flight, which we associated with dispersal, than butterflies from homogenous woodlands. Although results from this study should be interpreted with caution given the limited sample size, they provide valuable insights for the advancement of behavioural research that aims to assess the effects of global changes on insects.

Response of Cryptolestes ferrugineus (Coleoptera: Laemophloeidae) adults to small temperature (0-6 °C) and moisture (1%) differences in wheat.

Insects respond to temperature and moisture and their differences or gradients in grain bulks, but how small these differences can be is unknown. Response of Cryptolestes ferrugineus (Stephens) adults to 0-6 °C temperature differences in 1 m wheat (12.5% moisture content, w.b.) columns was determined in 24 h. Similarly, the moisture response of the adults was determined in 1 m grain columns with a 1 percentage point difference in the wheat moisture content (12.5 and 13.5%) at 25 °C in 24 h. Adults were highly temperature and moisture sensitive and were able to respond to the lowest temperature difference of 1 °C and moisture difference of 1 percentage point within the wheat column. The temperature preference of the adults was confirmed with the recovery of about 78% of insects from the middle warmer sections of wheat at 25 or 30 °C when there was no temperature difference at other sections of the wheat columns. Irrespective of the temperature differences, on average of about 29% of adults moved towards the warmer end with the highest recovery of 47.3% observed at the temperature difference of 6 °C. The adult recovery from high-moisture locations decreased with an increase in distance away from the point of insect introduction (0.05-0.45 m). About 14% of adults moved to the furthest location of high-moisture ends (13.5% moisture content wheat) at 0.45 m. This study provided valuable insights for the development of mathematical models to predict 3D insect movement and distribution in storage grain bins.

Movement and distribution of Cryptolestes ferrugineus (Coleoptera: Laemophloeidae) adults in response to moisture in wheat filled in different lengths of columns

Major abiotic factors like the temperature and moisture and their differences or gradients significantly influence the insect movement and their distribution in grain bulks. The temperature response of adult Cryptolestes ferrugineus (Stephens) in stored wheat has been analyzed well in literature. However, the adult responses to nonlinear moisture differences or gradients are not yet studied in detail. The present work focused on determining the sensitivity of adults to moisture differences in grain bulks. The moisture response of the adults was determined in 1 and 2 m grain columns with 3 or 5 percentage points difference in wheat moisture content (12% and 15 or 17%) at 25 °C in different movement periods (12, 24, or 48 h). Adults could readily detect moist wheat in 24 h with positive hygrotactic response. More than 88% of adults remained in the high moisture wheat when introduced in the moist wheat. Adults demonstrated strong capability to respond to moist wheat irrespective of 3 or 5 percentage points of moisture differences. The adults tended to move away from dry wheat (12%) in search of high moisture wheat. The moisture response of the adults was significantly influenced by the movement distance and was effective until 0.25 m. Movement period significantly influenced adult recovery from the high moisture grain when movement distance was less than 0.5 m. There were many aggregations near and in the moist wheat, showing a uniform biased movement under bidirectional conditions in 1 and 2 m grain columns.

Simulation to investigate site-based monitoring of pest insect species for trade.

Pest insect surveillance using lures is widely used to support market access requirements for traded articles that are hosts or carriers of quarantine pests. Modeling has been used extensively to guide the design of surveillance to support pest free area claims but is less commonly applied to provide confidence in pest freedom or low pest prevalence within sites registered for trade. Site-based surveillance typically needs to detect pests that are already present in the site or that may be entering the site from surrounding areas. We assessed the ability of site-based surveillance strategies to detect pests originating from within or outside the registered site using a probabilistic trapping network simulation model with random-walk insect movement and biologically realistic parameters. For a given release size, time-dependent detection probability was primarily determined by trap density and lure attractiveness, whereas mean step size (daily dispersal) had limited effect. Results were robust to site shape and size. For pests already within the site, detection was most sensitive using regularly spaced traps. Perimeter traps performed best for detecting pests moving into the site, although the importance of trap arrangement decreased with time from release, and random trap placement performed relatively well compared to regularly spaced traps. High detection probabilities were achievable within 7 days using realistic values for lure attractiveness and trap density. These findings, together with the modeling approach, can guide the development of internationally agreed principles for designing site-based surveillance of lure-attractant pests that is calibrated against the risk of non-detection.

Sulfur stable isotopes as a tracer of insect migration and consumption by fish predators

Resource flows between freshwater ecosystems can greatly affect foodweb dynamics. The seasonal movement of a family of aquatic insects, water boatmen, or corixids (Hemiptera: Corixidae) represents an important transfer of resources between wetland and river ecosystems. Corixids migrate en masse from wetlands in the North American prairies to rivers every autumn to overwinter. In the North and South Saskatchewan rivers, Saskatchewan, Canada, several fish species prey upon these migratory corixids. Here, we examined the utility of the stable isotope ratio of sulfur, δ34S, in tracing the migration of corixids between wetlands and the North and South Saskatchewan rivers. We also assessed the extent to which riverine fish use migratory corixids as a dietary subsidy. We found that both corixids and other wetland invertebrates exhibited a mean δ34S value of −10.5 ± 5.8‰, lower than riverine invertebrates at −4.1 ± 4.1‰. Specifically, riverine invertebrates from the South Saskatchewan River were more depleted in 34S than those from the North Saskatchewan River, with means of −5.1 ± 4.1‰ and −1.4 ± 2.8‰, respectively. In summer, corixid-feeing and noncorixid-feeding fish exhibited similar δ34S values in liver tissue, whereas in spring and autumn, corixid feeders exhibited more negative δ34S values. Isotope mixing models indicated that corixid-feeding species may have derived 34 to 65% of liver tissue from wetland sources in spring, 15 to 34% in summer, and 41 to 78% in autumn, whereas contributions to noncorixid-feeding species ranged from 4 to 17% across all seasons. We conclude that δ34S has the potential to trace insect movement and consumer use between isotopically distinct freshwater systems.

Dynamics of excitable cells: spike-adding phenomena in action

We study the dynamics of action potentials of some electrically excitable cells: neurons and cardiac muscle cells. Bursting, following a fast–slow dynamics, is the most characteristic behavior of these dynamical systems, and the number of spikes may change due to spike-adding phenomenon. Using analytical and numerical methods we give, by focusing on the paradigmatic 3D Hindmarsh–Rose neuron model, a review of recent results on the global organization of the parameter space of neuron models with bursting regions occurring between saddle-node and homoclinic bifurcations (fold/hom bursting). We provide a generic overview of the different bursting regimes that appear in the parametric phase space of the model and the bifurcations among them. These techniques are applied in two realistic frameworks: insect movement gait changes and the appearance of Early Afterdepolarizations in cardiac dynamics.

The Afrotropical breeding grounds of the Palearctic-African migratory painted lady butterflies (Vanessa cardui)

Migratory insects are key players in ecosystem functioning and services, but their spatiotemporal distributions are typically poorly known. Ecological niche modeling (ENM) may be used to predict species seasonal distributions, but the resulting hypotheses should eventually be validated by field data. The painted lady butterfly (Vanessa cardui) performs multigenerational migrations between Europe and Africa and has become a model species for insect movement ecology. While the annual migration cycle of this species is well understood for Europe and northernmost Africa, it is still unknown where most individuals spend the winter. Through ENM, we previously predicted suitable breeding grounds in the subhumid regions near the tropics between November and February. In this work, we assess the suitability of these predictions through i) extensive field surveys and ii) two-year monitoring in six countries: a large-scale monitoring scheme to study butterfly migration in Africa. We document new breeding locations, year-round phenological information, and hostplant use. Field observations were nearly always predicted with high probability by the previous ENM, and monitoring demonstrated the influence of the precipitation seasonality regime on migratory phenology. Using the updated dataset, we built a refined ENM for the Palearctic-African range of V. cardui. We confirm the relevance of the Afrotropical region and document the missing natural history pieces of the longest migratory cycle described in butterflies.

Active Sensing in Bees Through Antennal Movements Is Independent of Odor Molecule.

When sampling odors, many insects are moving their antennae in a complex but repeatable fashion. Previous studies with bees have tracked antennal movements in only two dimensions, with a low sampling rate and with relatively few odorants. A detailed characterization of the multimodal antennal movement patterns as function of olfactory stimuli is thus wanted. The aim of this study is to test for a relationship between the scanning movements and the properties of the odor molecule. We tracked several key locations on the antennae of bumblebees at high frequency and in three dimensions while stimulating the insect with puffs of 11 common odorants released in a low-speed continuous flow. Water and paraffin were used as negative controls. Movement analysis was done with the neural network Deeplabcut. Bees use a stereotypical oscillating motion of their antennae when smelling odors, similar across all bees, independently of the identity of the odors and hence their diffusivity and vapor pressure. The variability in the movement amplitude among odors is as large as between individuals. The main type of oscillation at low frequencies and large amplitude is triggered by the presence of an odor and is in line with previous work, as is the speed of movement. The second oscillation mode at higher frequencies and smaller amplitudes is constantly present. Antennae are quickly deployed when a stimulus is perceived, decorrelate their movement trajectories rapidly, and oscillate vertically with a large amplitude and laterally with a smaller one. The cone of airspace thus sampled was identified through the 3D understanding of the motion patterns. The amplitude and speed of antennal scanning movements seem to be function of the internal state of the animal, rather than determined by the odorant. Still, bees display an active olfactory sampling strategy. First, they deploy their antennae when perceiving an odor. Second, fast vertical scanning movements further increase the odorant capture rate. Finally, lateral movements might enhance the likelihood to locate the source of odor, similarly to the lateral scanning movement of insects at odor plume boundaries.

Agricultural margins could enhance landscape connectivity for pollinating insects across the Central Valley of California, U.S.A.

One of the defining features of the Anthropocene is eroding ecosystem services, decreases in biodiversity, and overall reductions in the abundance of once-common organisms, including many insects that play innumerable roles in natural communities and agricultural systems that support human society. It is now clear that the preservation of insects cannot rely solely on the legal protection of natural areas far removed from the densest areas of human habitation. Instead, a critical challenge moving forward is to intelligently manage areas that include intensively farmed landscapes, such as the Central Valley of California. Here we attempt to meet this challenge with a tool for modeling landscape connectivity for insects (with pollinators in particular in mind) that builds on available information including lethality of pesticides and expert opinion on insect movement. Despite the massive fragmentation of the Central Valley, we find that connectivity is possible, especially utilizing the restoration or improvement of agricultural margins, which (in their summed area) exceed natural areas. Our modeling approach is flexible and can be used to address a wide range of questions regarding both changes in land cover as well as changes in pesticide application rates. Finally, we highlight key steps that could be taken moving forward and the great many knowledge gaps that could be addressed in the field to improve future iterations of our modeling approach.

Insect Pollinator Monitoring in and around a Netted Plot of Apple Trees—Biosafety Implications for Genetically Engineered Fruit Trees

The complete netting of orchards is one strategy to protect fruit trees from pest and pathogen damage by reducing insect movement. When the cultivated trees were derived from genetic engineering (GE), reduced pollinator movement may also reduce outcrossing to cultivated or wild non-GE trees. We report on a field study over four years in a plot of apple tress supplied with insect side nets and covered with hail nets that were closed from shortly before flowering to harvest. A reduced number of arthropods in general, and large bees in particular, were recorded inside the netted plot compared with outside. However, wild bees colonized the plot before the net was closed and built up populations inside. An additional experiment demonstrated that small bees were able to cross the hail net. While the nets were effective in excluding large bees as active pollen vectors, the proportion of small bees acting as such remained unquantified. Furthermore, a companion study showed occasional cross-pollination events through the netting. For the field release of GE apple trees, acceptable levels of outcrossing thus need to be defined.

Alien insect dispersal mediated by the global movement of commodities.

Globalization and economic growth are recognized as key drivers of biological invasions. Alien species have become a feature of almost every biological community worldwide, and rates of new introductions continue to rise as the movement of people and goods accelerates. Insects are among the most numerous and problematic alien organisms, and are mainly introduced unintentionally with imported cargo or arriving passengers. However, the processes occurring prior to insect introductions remain poorly understood. We used a unique dataset of 1,902,392 border interception records from inspections at air, land, and maritime ports in Australia, New Zealand, Europe, Japan, USA, and Canada to identify key commodities associated with insect movement through trade and travel. In total, 8939 species were intercepted, and commodity association data were available for 1242 species recorded between 1960 and 2019. We used rarefaction and extrapolation methods to estimate the total species richness and diversity associated with different commodity types. Plant and wood products were the main commodities associated with insect movement across cargo, passenger baggage, and international mail. Furthermore, certain species were mainly associated with specific commodities within these, and other broad categories. More closely related species tended to share similar commodity associations, but this occurred largely at the genus level rather than within orders or families. These similarities within genera can potentially inform pathway management of new alien species. Combining interception records across regions provides a unique window into the unintentional movement of insects, and provides valuable information on establishment risks associated with different commodity types and pathways.

Using cloud radar to investigate the effect of rainfall on migratory insect flight

Abstract The fate of migrating insects that encounter rainfall in flight is a critical consideration when modelling insect movement, but few field observations of this common phenomenon have ever been collected due to the logistical challenges of witnessing these encounters. Operational cloud radars have been deployed around the world by meteorological agencies to study precipitation physics, and as a byproduct, provide a rich database of insect observations that is freely available to researchers. Although considered unwanted ‘clutter’ by the meteorologists who collect the data, the analysis method presented here enables ecologists to delineate co‐occurring signals from insects and raindrops. We present a method that uses image processing techniques on cloud radar velocity spectra to examine the fate of migrating insects when they encounter precipitation. By analysing velocity spectra, we can distinguish flying insects from falling rain and compare the relative density of insects in flight before, during and after the rainfall. We demonstrate the method on a case of insect migration in Oklahoma, USA. Using this method, we show the first reconstructed images of migrating insect layers in flight during rainfall. Our analysis shows that mild to moderate rainfall diminishes the number of insects aloft but does not cause full termination of migratory flight, as has previously been suggested. We hope this technique will spur further investigations of how changing weather conditions impact insect migration, and enable some of the first of such studies in regions of the world that are underrepresented in the literature.

3D escape: an alternative paradigm for spatial orientation studies in insects

Arthropods and in particular insects show a great variety of different exoskeletal sensors. For most arthropods, spatial orientation and gravity perception is not fully understood. In particular, the interaction of the different sensors is still a subject of ongoing research. A disadvantage of most of the experimental methods used to date to study the spatial orientation of arthropods in behavioral experiments is that the body or individual body parts are fixed partly in a non-natural manner. Therefore, often only the movement of individual body segments can be used to evaluate the experiments. We here present a novel experimental method to easily study 3D-escape movements in insects and analyze whole-body reaction. The animals are placed in a transparent container, filled with a lightweight substrate and rotating around two axes. To verify our setup, house crickets (Acheta domesticus) with selectively manipulated gravity-perceiving structures were analyzed. The spatial orientation behavior was quantified by measuring the time individuals took to escape toward the surface and the angular deviation toward the gravitational vector. These experiments confirm earlier results and therefore validated our experimental setup. Our new approach thus allows to investigate several comprehensive questions regarding the spatial orientation of insects and other animals.

Insect repellent pellets - an application of botanicals against red flour beetle - their antifungal activity during storage and use as potential fumigants.

The protection of grains from insect infestation is critical during storage. Insect repellent pellets (IRPs) are a potential technique to repel insects by hindering insect movement toward the grains. The basic principle of IRPs is the use of active components found in the oils of lemongrass, eucalyptus, and neem leaves for the controlled release of fumes, thereby avoiding the need for reapplication after a few days. Here, we examined the antifungal activity, the lethal dose, and the repelling effect of IRPs against red flour beetle, Tribolium castaneum, over a 30 day period. We observed that IRPs possessed antifungal properties and were able to repel the adults of T. castaneum. These insects ultimately died from the fumes if they manage to stay near the IRPs (LD50 = 2 and LD99 = 7 days). The active components (phenol, 2,4-di-tert-butyl-, citral, neral, geraniol, n-hexadecanoic acid) present in IRP during the initial stage were also found after a storage period of 35 days. The active components present in IRPs have antifungal, repellent, and fumigant properties. The IRPs can thus be termed potent botanical insecticides and are an alternative to synthetic insecticides. © 2022 Society of Chemical Industry.

Modelling push-pull management of pest insects using repellents and attractive traps in fruit tree orchards.

Push-pull with semiochemicals in pest management uses repellents to reduce response of pests to food-mate resources (push) and attractive traps to reduce populations (pull). Simulation models of push-pull can aid understanding of plant-insect interactions in nature and suggest hypotheses for field tests that improve management. A previous model indicated advantages of push-pull for controlling ambrosia beetle, Euwallacea fornicatus, pest of avocado trees. However, the simulated behavior of repellency was inconsistent with field observations. We simulated individual-based movement of insects in push-pull to reveal relationships between parameters of radii (strength) of attractive traps, pest aggregations, and repellents with densities of each in an avocado orchard to visualize and understand the interactions and significance. Simulations indicated placement of traps along a 1-ha area periphery as a barrier resulted in similar trapping and mating as when traps were in a grid, either when insects originated randomly inside the plot or came from outside the plot. However, when insects originated from outside, both arrangements caught slightly more than when insects originated within the plot. There were no differences in capture rates whether traps were spaced in a barrier along the plot's periphery or in a grid covering the plot. Push-pull was more effective than pull (mass trapping) alone. Repellent behavior of individuals when encountering a repellent radius was modelled by approximate 90° turns (right or left at random) when about to enter an infestation, consistent with earlier observations of effects of repellents on bark beetles orienting to aggregation pheromone. © 2022 Society of Chemical Industry.

Effects of Insect Density, Movement Period, and Temperature on Three-Dimensional Movement and Distribution of Adult Cryptolestes ferrugineus (Coleoptera: Laemophloeidae).

Knowledge on three-dimensional (3D) movement and distribution of Cryptolestes ferrugineus (Stephens) (Coleoptera: Laemophloeidae) in grain bulks assists in the prediction of their distribution inside a bin. The following experiments were conducted to determine the 3D dispersal patterns of adult C. ferrugineus in wheat with 14.5% moisture content: 1) at various insect densities (0.35, 1.77 and 3.53 A/kg (adults/kg) at 20°C and in 24 h movement period; 2) in different movement periods (6, 24, and 72 h) at 20°C and 0.35 A/kg insect density; and 3) at different temperatures (20, 30 and 35°C) at 0.35 A/kg density in 24 h movement period. To create the densities of 0.35, 1.77, and 3.53 A/kg, 100, 500, and 1,000 adults were introduced in about 285 kg wheat, respectively. The 285 kg of wheat was kept in 343 mesh cubes, which in turn were packed in a wooden box. The introduced adults were counted at the end of the movement periods. Adult C. ferrugineus tended to move downward from the point of introduction, and then diffused throughout the grain bulk. The effects of insect densities, movement periods, and temperatures on the dispersion pattern of insects were similar in 1D columns, 2D chambers, and 3D grain bulk.

International live insect trade: a survey of stakeholders.

There are significant numbers of transboundary shipments of live insects for pollination, pest management, industrial processes, research and other uses, but data collection and analysis have proved difficult. The World Organisation for Animal Health and Collectif TIS (Technique de l'Insecte Stérile), a French think tank, carried out a stakeholder survey to understand the nature of the live insect trade and potential challenges to safety and efficiency. Target respondents had experience in the areas of biocontrol, sterile insect technique, entomological research and regulatory affairs. Although the survey was sent globally, the responses were unintentionally biased towards Europe, where interest is high, since this region is developing a comprehensive framework to promote the use of beneficial insects to replace pesticides. The survey also explored respondents' knowledge of several international agreements on the movement and risk management of beneficial or invasive insects. Knowledge of the various regulations was generally poor, and respondents highlighted a perceived lack of clarity regarding live insect shipments in the existing international regulations and guidelines. Almost two-thirds of participants reported reluctance by carriers to accept live insects for shipment, and three-quarters described occasional to systematic delays that resulted in a reduction of quality or viability. Some respondents reported that they instead hand-carry live insects, mostly in small quantities. Participants described being directly involved in trade covering 70 species of live insects and ticks transported among 37 countries, with volumes ranging from fewer than ten insects to over a million per shipment. Of these, 30% were potential vectors of pathogens to humans or animals, 42% were potential plant pest species (including some used for biocontrol), and 17% were classical biocontrol agents. The results of this survey begin to define the current scope, scale and issues for those involved in shipping live insects and ticks across political boundaries. The survey's aim is to persuade regulatory bodies and shipping operators to facilitate safety, efficiency and consistency in this underdeveloped sector.