Mountain Range Research Articles

First Report of Acanthamoeba Genotype T4 from the Newly Formed Tajogaite Volcano Tephra (La Palma, Canary Islands).

The Tajogaite Volcano erupted on the western slope of the Cumbre Vieja mountain range on La Palma Island in the Canary Islands, Spain, in 2021. As one of the multiple consequences of this eruption, a layer of tephra was deposited, to a variable extent, over a large part of the island. Tephra deposits affect all aspects of vegetation recovery, the water cycle, and the long-term availability of volcanic nutrients. Protozoa, including free-living amoeba (FLA), are known to be among the first microorganisms capable of colonizing harsh environments. In the present study, the presence of FLA has been evaluated in the Tajogaite Volcano deposits. Samples of the tephra were collected and incubated at 26 °C on 2% non-nutrient agar plates with a layer of heat-killed E. coli. Morphological features, as well as the DF3 region sequence of the 18S rDNA, confirmed the presence of a T4 genotype strain of Acanthamoeba. Thermotolerance and osmotolerance assays were used to evaluate the strain's pathogenic potential. This strain was considered thermotolerant but poorly osmotolerant. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report of Acanthamoeba being isolated from a recently erupted volcano.

Evidence of back-folding in the Beas Valley puts Himalayan tectonic models on trial

Field structural observations from the Himachal Himalaya, in the northwest of the mountain belt, challenge existing tectonic models and raise questions as to their validity. Microstructures and geochronological data reveal two discrete episodes of Barrovian metamorphism, the earliest during the Eocene-Oligocene transition, before an early period of recumbent folding. This metamorphic event occurred in association with a km-scale extensional ductile shear zone that is itself now recumbently folded on the km-scale, with an axial plane pressure solution cleavage. The Eocene-Oligocene gneiss complex is thus exposed in its core. The second episode of Barrovian metamorphism occurred in association with another regional-scale extensional shear zone during the Oligo-Miocene transition, thus synchronous to the South Tibetan Detachment System. This transects the recumbent fold stack. Microstructures show that the Main Central Thrust was initiated after the second phase of extension, and the associated second episode of Barrovian metamorphism had ceased operating. Further, the previously unrecognized km-scale Phojal Back-fold affects all of the above structures. Confusion caused by the misidentification of this structure led to the tectonic-wedge model, but this hypothesis can be invalidated by the structural evidence presented here. Our data support an alternative hypothesis that requires tectonic mode-switches in association with a succession of accretion events as India indents into Eurasia.

Distribution and habitat database of fluvial Plecoptera, Trichoptera and Coleoptera from Sierra Nevada, Spain

Sierra Nevada (southern Iberian Peninsula) harbours a great biodiversity and the studies on some aquatic insect groups have been and continue to be numerous there. This database brings together information on Plecoptera, Trichoptera and Coleoptera inhabiting running waters of this mountain system above 800 m of altitude. It includes data on the number, life stage and sex of individuals as well as the available information on abiotic characteristics of their habitats. The dataset is composed of 1,718 sampling events carried out between 1901 and 2022 in approximately 60 different water bodies, 15,347 occurrences pertaining to more than 203,000 individuals, and 10,173 records of associated measurements (23 physico-chemical parameters). The dataset is the result of a comprehensive review of scientific literature and of integrating data from recent research projects and the Sierra Nevada Global-Change Observatory’s long-term monitoring data. This information is valuable for those studying past distributions and abundances of the species in the dataset, for building predictive models or just studying temporal trends in the current context of climate change.

Distribution and soil threshold of selenium in the cropland of southwest mountainous areas in China

To investigate the distribution characteristics of selenium (Se) in mountainous soil-crop systems and examine the threshold value of Se-rich soil, 275 soil samples and 153 associated crop samples (rice, maize, tea, nuts, konjac, mushrooms, buckwheat, and coffee) were collected in Ximeng County, a typical mountainous area in southwest China. The total Se, available Se, organic matter, pH, sampling point elevation, and crop Se content were analyzed to examine the distribution characteristics of soil Se and the ability of primary crops to enrich Se in Ximeng County. Random forest and multiple regression models were established to identify the factors influencing the available soil Se and the crop Se enrichment coefficient. Finally, the Se-rich soil threshold was examined based on the total Se, available Se, and Se content in primary crops (rice, maize, and tea). The results showed soil Se resource abundance in the study region, with high Se soil accounting for 64.72% of the entire area. The soil Se content displayed significant spatial autocorrelation. The average Se enrichment coefficient of the main cultivated crops included mushrooms > nuts > rice > coffee > tea > maize > buckwheat > konjac. The total Se content in the soil had the highest impact on the available Se content in the soil and the Se enrichment coefficient of crops. A Se-rich soil threshold of 0.3 mg·kg−1 was used for rice and maize, while that of tea was 0.4 mg·kg−1. This result provided a theoretical basis for developing and utilizing Se resources in mountainous soil in southwestern China and dividing the Se-rich soil threshold.

Evaporation from dams governing the water cycle dynamics of a regulated river basin from the Western Ghats: Sharavati, India

Study regionSharavati River, Karnataka, India. Study focusA small mountainous river system, Sharavati, was selected to study the impact of river damming on the hydrological cycle. Sharavati river flow is regulated by two dams, Linganamakki and Gersoppa. Despite the Western Ghats' global significance in controlling local and regional climates, the effects of damming on its hydrological cycles have received limited attention. A stable water isotopic approach was employed in the study. New hydrological insights for the regionThe line-conditioned excess (lc-excess) was primarily negative across all seasons. Notably, the pre-monsoon season exhibited comparatively higher evaporation with high negative lc-excess, while the postmonsoon lc-excess values approached zero, indicating minimal evaporation. The sampling points from the dams exhibited very high evaporation signals, the evaporative loss during the pre-monsoon season from the Linganamakki reservoir was estimated as 10 %, and from the Gersoppa dam was 6 %. Consequently, groundwater sampled near the dams, plotted along the local evaporation line indicating recharge from the evaporated reservoir water. Damming has affected the hydrological cycle of the heavily regulated Sharavati River, transforming the entire catchment into a connected, narrow lake-like structure, especially during the pre-monsoon season. Since the Western Ghat river systems are regulated by many large and small dams, it is pertinent to study the impact of damming on the hydrological cycles of the entire system.

Comparative Analysis of the Mineral Associations in the Sediments from Buor-Khaya Bay

According to the results of analysis of 99 samples of bottom sediments and submarine permafrost from wells 1D-14, 3D-14 and 1D-15 drilled in the Buor-Khaya Bay, differences in their mineral composition due to paleogeographic factors, namely Late Quaternary changes in climate and sea level, as well as regional hydrodynamics are shown. The basis of the light fraction of minerals was quartz and feldspar (mainly plagioclases), found in the form of grains of various dimensions and sorting degree, as well as fine grains. To a lesser extent, the presence of chlorites, kaolinite and serpentines is noted, illite and smectite are rare. 42 accessory minerals were identified in the heavy fraction (average yield 0.95%) concentrated in fine-grained sands. It mainly consists of pyroxenes, amphiboles, carbonatite, epidote, zoisite, magnetite, mica, garnet, limonite, sphene, leucoxene, ilmenite. Rutile, kyanite, sillimanite, zircon, tourmaline, apatite, and stavrolite were found in smaller quantities. In the studied strata, plant remnants and carbon-like particles (kerogen) are found, the contribution of which exceeds 5% by weight in a number of samples. The results of the study allowed to conclude that the basis of the petrofund of the studied deposits are most likely sedimentary rocks of the Kharaulakh ridge of the Verkhoyansk mountain system (sandstones, siltstones and mudstones). The presence of characteristic accessory minerals in the sediments marks the unloading of igneous and metamorphic rocks, but their contribution is subordinate. They probably also include rocks of the Verkhoyansk complex, common near the Tiksi.

The Eastern Ghat of India: A review on plant ecological perspectives

The Eastern Ghats, a discontinuous range of mountains spanning Odisha, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Tamil Nadu, and Karnataka has a humid tropical monsoon climate with moderate to high temperatures and heavy rainfall. The Eastern Ghats offer a diverse range of flora and fauna, including endemics. The vegetation is classified into various forest types, including moist deciduous, dry deciduous, dry evergreen, evergreen, semi-evergreen, scrub jungles, and savannah. Eastern Ghat reflects the healthy carrying capacity of the ecosystem. The Eastern Ghats boasts a diverse plant community, with over 3200 flowering plant species, largely due to geographic factors, high seasonality, and elevational variations. The Eastern Ghats, a significant biodiversity granary in India, has been the subject of numerous taxonomic and quantitative surveys. The eastern coast of India's eastern forest (Eastern Ghats) is facing a decline in plant diversity due to overexploitation, habitat destruction, and rampant grazing. This has led to species loss and extinction. The forest cover has also decreased due to anthropogenic pressures. However, there is a lack of significant research on plant species population dynamics, soil surveys, soil chemistry, geomorphology, geobotany, pedology, edaphology, and phytochemistry. To address this, modern science and technology approaches, such as geomorphometry and geobotanical studies using Remote Sensing and GIS techniques, are the need of the hour.

Snails of ‘sky islands’ above an equatorial desert: Terrestrial molluscs on four isolated mountain ranges in northern Kenya

AbstractThe mountains of northern Kenya (Ndoto, Nyiro, Kulal and Marsabit) are separated by semi‐arid plains uninhabitable for most terrestrial molluscs (snails and slugs). Nevertheless, each “sky island” supports a little‐known forest mollusc fauna. The diversity and endemism of these faunas are addressed here based on surveys and the limited records available in the literature. In total 75 forest mollusc species and subspecies were found, including six previously undescribed Streptaxidae and many first records. Most previously recorded taxa were refound. The richness of faunas is broadly comparable to that of other Kenyan forests surveyed using similar methods (Ndoto 41 taxa, Nyiro 40, Kulal 33, Marsabit 34). A large proportion of the forest taxa (24 taxa, 29%) are endemic to Kenya north of the Mathews Range. More than half of these (14 taxa, 17% of the total) are known only from a single mountain range. At Nyiro, where different forest types were compared, fewer endemic species were found in Juniper forest than in other forest types. Moving northwards along the Ndoto‐Nyiro‐Kulal chain, diversity declines while endemism increases, perhaps reflecting increasing isolation from the southern forests, but the trends are not significant when Marsabit is included. Across the four ranges, neither diversity nor endemism is clearly linked to the isolation, maximum elevation, forest cover or geological origin of each range (Kulal and Marsabit are volcanoes, while Nyiro and Ndoto are uplifted basement rock). Instead, the unique circumstances of each range create a distinctive set of isolated faunas.

Research and Implementation of FPGA Image Compression Parallel Algorithm Based on CCSDS

High-pixel, high-resolution spectral images are an important source of key graphical information obtained from space remote sensing, however, with the dramatically expanding amount of graphical information, the limited transmission bandwidth and hardware resources are difficult to meet the demand for massive data, which makes real-time image lossless compression and transmission technology an important solution. For this reason, this paper is based on the CCSDS image lossless compression algorithm, using FPGA for the construction of image compression system, and proposes a method strategy based on parallel acceleration algorithm to realize the real time processing of large-capacity hyperspectral images. The simulation results show that hyperspectral river and mountain range images can be compressed with greatly improved compression efficiency while maintaining real time performance and accuracy.

Estimation of radon concentration in groundwater in the mining zone of Haryana, India, for lungs and stomach annual effective dose.

The groundwater is being used for drinking and irrigation purposes in vast swathes of the Aravalli Mountain range. Since the radioisotope presence in groundwater is affected by the local mining processes, the radiation monitoring in groundwater of mining regions is of paramount importance. In the present work, we have estimated the 222Rn presence in the mining region of Aravalli in the southern part of Haryana. We measured the Radon concentration in 51 water samples from the intended area using the RAD7 alpha detector. The measured radon concentration in some of the water samples collected from the vicinity of the mining zone is higher than that of the United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation recommended value. Furthermore, we have estimated the annual effective doses for the lungs and stomach contributed by ingestion and inhalation. Though the calculated dose values in collected samples are not in the critical range, further monitoring of background radiation in the Aravalli region is required.

Landform evolution of the Qilian Shan since 120 Ma revealed by apatite fission track data

The Cenozoic uplift of the Qilian Shan mountain range is intimately connected with the collision of the Indian and Eurasian plates, although the mechanism of deformation is still unclear due to the large distance between the Qilian Shan and the plate collision boundary. The first requirement if we are to determine this mechanism is to obtain the uplift process of the Qilian Shan range, which remains a matter of debate. We compiled apatite fission track data from previous studies of the Qilian Shan range to investigate the spatial and temporal disparities or similarities of the exhumation process. Most of the age-evolution profiles and thermo-modelling results show a low exhumation rate from 80 to 20 Ma, corresponding to shorter apatite fission track lengths, indicating a lower rate of erosion and lower relief across the whole Qilian Shan region. The results also reveal two stages of rapid exhumation: during the Cretaceous (120–80 Ma) and since the Miocene (20–0 Ma). The exhumation history of the Qilian Shan range shows no significant spatial difference and outward growth was limited at the southern and northern edges after 5 Ma. This temporal and spatial pattern for the exhumation of the Qilian Shan range suggests that there was probably no obvious uplift at the time of the initial collision of the Indian–Tibetan plates and support the proposal that the whole Qilian range has uplifted synchronously since 20 Ma.

The Impact of Altitude on Tick-Borne Pathogens at Two Mountain Ranges in Central Slovakia.

Ticks are ectoparasites of a wide range of animals and are important vectors of numerous pathogens affecting humans, livestock, and pets. This study investigates possible correlations between selected factors, altitude, soil pH, and a factor called 'amount' (number of ticks examined in pooled samples) on the occurrence of I. ricinus ticks positive for selected tick-borne microorganisms. Questing I. ricinus ticks were collected in 2016 and 2017 across various altitudes, at two mountain ranges in central Slovakia. Tick pools were screened for the presence of Anaplasma phagocytophilum, Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato (Bbsl), Babesia/Theileria spp., Rickettsia spp., and tick-borne encephalitis virus (TBEV) using molecular methods. Regression analysis was employed to evaluate relationships between selected factors and the occurrence of vector-borne microorganisms. This study revealed a statistically significant influence of altitude on the occurrence of A. phagocytophilum; increasing altitude of the sampling site was associated with increased probability of pathogen occurrence. For Babesia/Theileria spp., neither altitude nor soil pH significantly affected pathogen occurrence. The occurrence of Bbsl was notably impacted by both altitude and soil pH; higher altitudes were associated with a decreased probability of pathogen presence, whereas higher soil pH increased the likelihood of pathogen occurrence. The presence of Rickettsia in a pooled sample was not affected by altitude and soil pH, but the 'amount' factor was a significant predictor, increasing the probability of pathogen detection. Neither altitude nor soil pH had a significant impact on TBEV occurrence. The regression models showed moderate goodness-of-fit levels to the data, underscoring their utility in examining the role of altitude and soil pH on pathogen occurrence. However, they explained only a small portion of the overall variance in pathogen occurrence, indicating the presence of other significant factors not covered in this study.

China- India Border Crisis: Causes and Implications 1962-2023

For more than seventy years, the Sino-Indo border crisis has become an endless imbroglio with no settlement in sight. Relations between the two Asian giants have soured over the last decade, particularly following a 2020 boundary skirmish between Indian and Chinese soldiers in the Galwan area. The issue of a disputed border emerged in the early 1950s when the People’s Republic of China affected her capture of Tibet. This act created for China and India one of the lengthiest undefined boundaries in the globe. The China-India border stretches for approximately 3,488 kilometers (2,167 miles) across the Himalayan mountain range, separating the two countries. The main areas of contention are the western sector (Aksai Chin region administered by China but claimed by India) and the eastern sector (Arunachal Pradesh region administered by India but claimed by China). This dispute has led to several military standoffs and border skirmishes between the two countries over the years. The intricate and protractedness of this border conflict made this work try to find out the causes and implications of this crisis to the Asian region and the world generally. To do this effectively, we employ secondary sources where data was collected from textbooks, diplomatic records, academic literature, newspapers, journals, magazines, and internet materials. The data collected was analyzed through documentary evidence while the contested border and territorial nationalism theory were used as the analytical tool. The work discovered that factors like unresolved border issues, historical crises, strategic concerns, ideological biases, failed diplomatic negotiations, military considerations, the Tibetan refugees crisis, Cold War dynamics, and limited communications were some of the issues that led to the border crisis between the two Asian giants. Furthermore, the work found out that the implications engendered by the China-India border crisis are severe and expansive like heavy militarization of the China-Indian border, strategic instability in Asia, India’s more assertive foreign policy, China’s global image damage, policy implications, and arms race between the two Asian giants. The work concluded that China and India should strive for a harmonious and sustainable joint boundary commission that will map and mark their boundaries as this option if meticulously and strictly followed will tremendously benefit both and all.

Phylogenetic relationships and genetic diversity of the Korean endemic Phedimus latiovalifolius (Crassulaceae) and its close relatives

Phedimus latiovalifolius (Y.N.Lee) D.C.Son & H.J.Kim is exclusively distributed in the high mountains in the Korean Peninsula, mainly along the Baekdudaegan mountain range. Despite its morphological and distributional distinction from other Phedimus Raf. species, its taxonomic identity and phylogenetic relationship with congeneric species remain unclear. This study employs genotyping-by-sequencing-derived genome-wide single nucleotide polymorphisms to establish the monophyly of P. latiovalifolius and its relationship with closely related species. Genetic diversity and population differentiation of P. latiovalifolius are also assessed to provide baseline genetic information for future conservation and management strategies. Our phylogenetic analyses robustly demonstrate the monophyletic nature of P. latiovalifolius, with P. aizoon (L.) ‘t Hart identified as its closest sister lineage. There is no genetic evidence supporting a hybrid origin of P. latiovalifolius from P. aizoon involving either P. ellacombeanus (Praeger) ‘t Hart or P. kamtschaticus (Fisch.) ‘t Hart. Population genetic analyses reveal two major groups within P. latiovalifolius. A higher genetic variation is observed in P. ellacombeanus than in the congeneric species. Notably, most of the genetic variation exists within P. latiovalifolius populations. Given its distribution and the potential role of Baekdudaegan as an East Asian Pleistocene refugia, P. latiovalifolius could be considered rare and endemic, persisting in the refugium across glacial/interglacial cycles.

The Nigeria climate zones: Variability, trends and analysis from era-interim data (2010-2015)

This study analyses diurnal weather patterns in the lower atmosphere across four climate domains in Nigeria from Era-Interim data for synoptic hours of 0000, 0600, 1200 and 1800 hours from 2010-2015. The climate domain includes: Port Harcourt (tropical maritime), Enugu (bi-modal tropical continental), Jos (montane), Kano (mono-modal tropical continental) and Maiduguri (semi-arid). Findings revealed that air temperature across the areas indicate strong latitudinal positions with drier and hotter weather pattern northwards. Average air temperature across diurnal hours were 23.2-26oC, 23-29oC, 26-32oC, 26-34oC and 26.6-34 oC for Port Harcourt, Enugu, Jos, Kano and Maiduguri. Average solar radiation peaked at 1200 noon with values 508 W/m2, 639 W/m2, 830 W/m2, 905 W/m2, 832 W/m2 for the areas. Average wind speed increases northwards, i.e. 0.9-1.3m/s, 2.0-2.5m/s, 2.1-2.5m/s, 2.4-3.0m/s and 2.9-3.5m/s respectively. The wind variation is due to the surface characteristics across the areas. Southwesterly winds dominated coastal zone while southeasterly/northeasterly winds dominated the arid zone except during periods of peak rainy season. Average cloud cover for the coastal and northern domains in oktas was: 6-7 and 2-4. Relative humidity shows that prevailing atmospheric conditions at any given time are stronger at the areas close to the sources of influence and the position of Intertropical discontinuity (ITD). Humidity values were: 67-93% and 31-71% for coastal and northern domains. Rainfall amount reduces northwards i.e. 200-46 mm. Rainfall pattern is significantly influenced by the air masses source regions. These regions include closeness to massive water bodies, proximity to Sahara Desert and effects of mountainous barriers.

Checklist and Abundance with New Records of Mayflies (Insecta: Ephemeroptera) to Sierra Maestra Mountain Range, Cuba

Checklist and Abundance with New Records of Mayflies (Insecta: Ephemeroptera) to Sierra Maestra Mountain Range, Cuba

Luminescence dating of the MIS 6 glaciation of the Pamir mountains (Central Asia)

The Pamir Mountains are one of the highest mountain systems in the world; they act as sources of fresh water for the main rivers of Central Asia: the Amudaria and Syrdaria. Throughout the Quaternary, the Pamirs played a major role in controlling atmospheric circulation and land-surface processes, and provided great volumes of terrigenous sediments for transport by large rivers to the depressions in the Aral and Caspian regions. These ultimately provided broad aeolian cover in the sandy deserts, and finer dust for the widely distributed loess-palaeosol sequences. The glaciation history of this highly dynamic region provides an important basis for understanding climate change, sediment source and landscape evolution in Central Asia during the Quaternary. The question of the number, distribution, extent and timing of Pleistocene glaciations in the Pamir is debated. One of the main obstacles to research, together with difficulties of access and severity of current climate, is the varying degree of preservation of traces of previous glaciations in the western and eastern Pamir. As a result of a geological survey, we for the first time identified a thick lacustrine deposit at high altitudes in a tributary of the Panj – the valley of the Sary-Shitharv River – this records the damming of the Panj River valley by a large glacier. Luminescence measurements were undertaken to obtain the age of the Sary-Shitharv glacially-dammed lake. As often in mountain catchments the quartz OSL signal was unsuitable for dose estimation, and so the chronology of the Sary-Shitharv section is based entirely on post-IR IRSL signals from K-rich feldspar. We used pIRIR50,290 and pIRIR200,290 protocols and obtained indistinguishable ages from both protocols. Given the high sedimentation rates deduced from the structure of lacustrine deposits, the entire sequence must have been accumulated rather quickly, over a period of no more than a few thousand years. The average age over the whole series of dates is 165 ± 11 ka. This places the existence of the glacially-dammed lake at Sary-Shitharv in late MIS 6, a result that fits well with the general course of the glacial history of the Pamirs.

Spatio-Temporal Behavior of Land Surface Temperatures (LSTs) in Central Chile, Using Terra MODIS Images

Land surface temperature (LST) is one of the most important variables in the physical processes of surface energy and water balance. The temporal behavior of LST was analyzed between the latitudes 32°00′ S and 34°24′ S (Valparaíso and Metropolitana regions of Chile) for three summer months (December, January, and February) in the 2000–2017 period, using the Terra MODIS image information and applying the Mann–Kendall test. The results show an increase in LST in the study area, particularly in the Andes mountain range in January (5240 km2), which mainly comprises areas devoid of vegetation and eternal snow and glaciers, and are zones that act as water reserves for the capital city of Santiago. Similarly, vegetated areas such as forests, grasslands, and shrublands also show increasing trends in LST but over smaller surfaces. Because this study is regional, it is recommended to improve the spatial and temporal resolutions of the images to obtain conclusions on more local scales.

Seismic Risk Assessment and Analysis of Influencing Factors in the Sichuan–Yunnan Region

Investigating the distribution characteristics of earthquake disaster risks in the Sichuan–Yunnan region is of great importance for enhancing government emergency response capabilities and achieving sustainable regional development. This study, based on disaster systems theory, constructs a seismic risk evaluation index system for the Sichuan–Yunnan region and employs the entropy method to determine the comprehensive risk index for earthquake disasters across 37 prefecture-level cities. The findings reveal the following: (1) High-risk areas for disaster-causing factors are located in the Hengduan Mountain region and the North–South Mountain Range Valley Region; medium-risk areas are distributed along the northwestern edge of the Sichuan Basin; low-risk areas are situated in the eastern part of the Sichuan Basin and the Yunnan Plateau. (2) High-risk disaster-prone environments are found in the Hengduan Mountain region; medium-risk areas are present on the Yunnan Plateau and the western part of the North–South Mountain Range Valley Region; low-risk areas are in the Sichuan Basin. (3) High-vulnerability areas include the central Sichuan Basin and Kunming on the Yunnan Plateau; medium-vulnerability areas are located in the eastern and western parts of the Sichuan Basin; low-vulnerability areas are in the less developed parts of the Yunnan Plateau, the North–South Mountain Range Valley Region, and the Hengduan Mountain region. (4) High-risk seismic disaster areas are concentrated in the developed regions of the Sichuan Basin and the Yunnan Plateau; medium-risk areas are concentrated in the western part of the North–South Mountain Range Valley Region; low-risk areas are sporadically distributed in the eastern parts of the Sichuan–Yunnan region. (5) The vulnerability of the population, economy, and lifeline systems significantly explain the variation in seismic risk levels, all exceeding 0.70; the synergistic effects of disaster-causing factor danger, disaster-prone environment stability, and disaster-prone environment sensitivity are the most pronounced, with explanatory power exceeding 0.85 after factor interaction.

Andean Lakes, a proposal of lake districts

The Andes is the world's longest mountain system (8,500 km) and harbour important headwater systems, constituting crucial water resources for South America. Their complex topography significantly influences climate and hydrology. The Andes have a wide diversity of aquatic environments, with more than 5,000 lakes (> 0.1 km2, permanent and excluding man-made reservoirs) with different morphometry, including the largest and the deepest in South America (Titicaca and Viedma, respectively). Here we applied a grouping analysis based on available systematised information to delimit different lake districts along the Andes. More than 60% of the surface area of all Andean lakes is concentrated in only nine large lakes, while more than 80% of the lakes have less than a square kilometre area. The analysis proposes eleven lake districts corresponding two to the North Andes, six to the Central Andes and three to the South Andes. Each lake district is described based on the different morphologies, geological origins, climatic factors, and available limnological information. We consider that this study will benefit not only scientists but also decision-makers and stakeholders working in integrated water resources management in a region under climate change and socio-economic inequalities scenarios.