Mountain Coniferous Forests Research Articles

Vegetation response to early Pleistocene climatic cycles in the Lamone valley (Northern Apennines, Italy)

The vegetation response to cyclic climatic changes has been investigated by means of pollen analysis carried out on marine deposits outcropping in the Lamone valley (Northern Italy). The deposits consist of grey–blue silty–clays of the “Argille Azzurre” Formation. Three sedimentary successions, which form the Lamone section, have been analysed. These successions, according to previous studies, have been referred to the first two substages of the lower Pleistocene, the Santernian and the Emilian. Pollen data from sixty-nine samples document vegetation dynamics consisting of a temporal spread of three distinct forest formations: mixed-deciduous forest (with Quercus dominating), Juglandaceae forest (with Carya dominating) and mountain coniferous forest (with Picea dominating). Each forest formation formed a vegetation belt, characterized by distinct temperature and precipitation conditions. The spread of the mixed deciduous forest indicates that the temperature increases whereas the humidity is low. The transition to a Juglandaceae forest indicates the increase of humidity; this phase is characterized by “optimum” of temperature and precipitations. The spread of mountain coniferous forest points out temperature drop and humidity still high. When forest dynamics is interrupted by the spread of open vegetation, indicating decrease of humidity, a complete vegetation cycle occurs. Such cycle suggests that temperature and humidity independently vary, with minimum and maximum of temperature generally preceding humidity extremes. Each vegetation cycle, therefore, reveals the response of vegetation to cyclic climatic changes occurring during the early Pleistocene (glacial/interglacial cycles). Comparison with coeval pollen series from other Italian sites shows wider spread of Picea and minor expansion of open vegetation in Northern Italy with respect to Central and Southern Italy, suggesting the hypothesis of more humid conditions at the North (as also documented by previous works). Taxodium pollen-type is continuously represented in the Lamone pollen record, exhibiting values of ∼ 7% on average excluding Pinus (∼ 4% including pine). Sciadopitys shows a discontinuous presence and very low percentages. Local and peculiar climate conditions may have favoured the long survival of these taxa into the Pleistocene. On the basis of a comparison between the profile of Picea + Tsuga pollen curve (recorded at Lamone) and the δ 18O signal established at Site 607 (North Atlantic), the vegetation cycles documented in the Lamone valley have been tentatively correlated to oxygen isotope stages from 64 to 46. Stages 59 and 51 seem to be partially recorded, whereas, stages 58, 57, 50 and 49 are not recorded.

Quantifying fog water deposition by in situ exposure experiments in a mountainous coniferous forest in Taiwan

A new approach for quantifying fog deposition rate was conducted in a mountainous forested ecosystem ( Chamaecyparis obtusa var. formosana) in northeastern Taiwan where the frequency and duration of fog occurrence is extremely high and the annual number of foggy days often exceeds 350. The significance of fog in the hydrological budget of such ecosystems remains as an attractive ecological question. We studied the fog deposition rate by use of an in situ exposure experiment, in which the increase in weight of the leaves was recorded during several different wind and visibility conditions including foggy days of different fog density as well as some clear conditions. The fog capture rates of the leaves (fog water captured by unit leaf area per unit time) were measured at three heights of the canopy and multiplied with the respective leaf biomass for the deposition rates at the stand level. The exposure experiments showed a higher fog capture rate at the top layer of the canopy. Overall, the upper canopy contributed approximately 50% of the fog water captured by the forest stand, although this layer consisted only 34% of the total leaf biomass. Based on the Lovett micrometeorological model, an empirical model was developed which predicts fog deposition rate as an exponentially decay function of visibility. The annual fog deposition rate from March 2003 to February 2004 was calculated to be 328 mm year −1, which accounted for 10% of the total atmospheric hydrological input. The more frequent foggy conditions in winter resulted in a higher deposition rate in the cold season. We conclude that the use of a single parameter (visibility) accompanied by some point measurements in the field is effective and simple for predicting fog deposition rate. The limitations of the exposure experiment are discussed and possible improvements are proposed.

Erratum: The contribution of coarse woody debris to carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus cycles in three Rocky Mountain coniferous forests

Erratum: The contribution of coarse woody debris to carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus cycles in three Rocky Mountain coniferous forests

Effect of increased food abundance near forest edges on flocking patterns of Coal Tit Parus ater winter groups in mountain coniferous forests

CapsuleIndividuals concentrated near forest edges in bigger social groups than in forest interiors and foraged more on pine cones which were more abundant there. Aims To evaluate differences in food distribution between forest edges and forest interiors and their effects on the non-breeding flocking patterns of Coal Tit populations inhabiting mountain coniferous forests. Methods We collected cone production data at forests edges and interiors in mountain pine forests located in the Pyrenees (northeast Iberian peninsula). At the same sites, we also quantified Coal Tit abundance, flocking patterns and foraging behaviour by means of paired bird surveys during autumn and early winter. Results We recorded a larger abundance of pine cones available on trees along forest edges compared with forest interiors. Coal Tit groups were of bigger size along forest edges, although the number of social groups detected did not differ from forest interiors. Our observations on foraging behaviour supported the hypothesis that differences in flock sizes and overall abundances associated with distance to the edge are due to differences in the availability of pine cones and to the heavier use of these foraging substrates by birds along forest edges. Conclusions Our results suggest that by changing food distribution, edge effects on pine cone production may be significantly involved in local changes in the social structure of the Coal Tit. An increase in resource heterogeneity and local population density may have important implications at a population level, such as favouring mobility of individuals searching for food resources and thus a transient life, and increasing the costs of territory defence to resident individuals.

Understory plant species composition 30–50 years after clearcutting in southeastern Wyoming coniferous forests

To evaluate the long-term effects of clearcutting and slash treatment on understory plant species composition in Rocky Mountain coniferous forests, we collected comparable data from 30- to 50-year-old post-harvest stands and adjacent mature (>100-year-old) stands that originated after wildfire. In general, plant species richness was higher in the post-harvest stands than in adjacent mature stands, due in large part to the presence of species that benefit from disturbance. Species composition in post-harvest and mature stands was more similar in montane forests (2710–2805 m elevation) than in subalpine forests (2800–3164 m elevation), suggesting greater resilience of montane understories. Composition in post-harvest and mature stands was least similar when slash was piled and burned, and most similar when slash was lopped and scattered. Eighty-seven percent of the post-harvest stands had at least one exotic species, but total cover of exotic plant species in all post-harvest stands was ≤1%. Exotic species were largely absent from mature forests. Our results suggest that understory species of low-elevation montane forests recover more quickly from disturbance than do those of subalpine forests, with slash treatment and species life history traits strongly influencing this recovery.

Historic range of variability in landscape structure in subalpine forests of the Greater Yellowstone Area, USA

A measure of the historic range of variability (HRV) in landscape structure is essential for evaluating current landscape patterns of Rocky Mountain coniferous forests that have been subjected to intensive timber harvest. We used a geographic information system (GIS) and FRAGSTATS to calculate key landscape metrics on two ∼130,000-ha landscapes in the Greater Yellowstone Area, USA: one in Yellowstone National Park (YNP), which has been primarily shaped by natural fires, and a second in the adjacent Targhee National Forest (TNF), which has undergone intensive clearcutting for nearly 30 years. Digital maps of the current and historical landscape in YNP were developed from earlier stand age maps developed by Romme and Despain. Maps of the TNF landscape were adapted from United States Forest Service Resource Information System (RIS) data. Key landscape metrics were calculated at 20-yr intervals for YNP for the period from 1705-1995. These metrics were used to first evaluate the relative effects of small vs. large fire events on landscape structure and were then compared to similar metrics calculated for both pre- and post-harvest landscapes of the TNF. Large fires, such as those that burned in 1988, produced a structurally different landscape than did previous, smaller fires (1705-1985). The total number of patches of all types was higher after 1988 (694 vs. 340-404 before 1988), and mean patch size was reduced by almost half (186 ha vs. 319-379 ha). The amount of unburned forest was less following the 1988 fires (63% vs. 72-90% prior to 1988), yet the number of unburned patches increased by nearly an order of magnitude (230 vs. a maximum of 41 prior to 1988). Total core area and mean core area per patch decreased after 1988 relative to smaller fires (∼73,700 ha vs. 87,000-110,000 ha, and 320 ha vs. 2,123 ha, respectively). Notably, only edge density was similar (17 m ha−1 after 1988) to earlier landscapes (9.8-14.2 m ha−1).Three decades of timber harvesting dramatically altered landscape structure in the TNF. Total number of patches increased threefold (1,481 after harvest vs. 437 before harvest), and mean patch size decreased by ∼70% (91.3 ha vs. 309 ha). None of the post-harvest landscape metrics calculated for the TNF fell within the HRV as defined in YNP, even when the post-1988 landscape was considered. In contrast, pre-harvest TNF landscape metrics were all within, or very nearly within, the HRV for YNP. While reference conditions such as those identified by this study are useful for local and regional landscape evaluation and planning, additional research is necessary to understand the consequences of changes in landscape structure for population, community, ecosystem, and landscape function.

Vegetation surveys in the circumboreal coniferous forests: A review

As an introduction to the special issue "Vegetation of Circumboreal Coniferous Forests", a brief history is provided of the development and present state of floristic vegetation surveys of the boreal and mountain coniferous forests of Europe, northern Asia and North America. The focus is on forests assigned to the phytosociological class Vaccinio-Piceetea and closely related vegetation types.

Plant communities and habitat differentiation in the Mediterranean coniferous woodlands of Mt. Parnon (Greece)

Coniferous forests are a significant feature in the natural vegetation of the Mediterranean mountains, but most stands are rather degraded and the present distribution is just a fraction of its potential natural area. The Parnonas range (Peloponnese, Greece) ranks among the most extensive areas with a well-preserved mountain coniferous forest in the Mediterranean. The present paper aims at describing the conifer-dominated vegetation of this mountain and the ecological roles of the prevailing speciesAbies cephalonica, Pinus nigra, andJuniperus drupacea. For comparison, a survey is provided of theAbies cephalonica forests in the total distribution area, using all published releves. Species composition and abundance, together with structural and abiotic parameters were recorded in 118 releves distributed throughout Mt. Parnon. The phytosociological classification reveals 8 interpretable vegetation types well separated by groups of diagnostic species and presented in a synoptic table. The ecology and distribution of the units are outlined, and they are assigned to 4 associations within theAbietion cephalonicae (Helictotricho convoluti-Abietetum cephalonicae, Junipero drupaceae-Abietetum cephalonicae, Lilio chalcedonicae-Abietetum cephalonicae, Pyrolo chloranthae — Pinetum nigrae). The syntaxonomy and nomenclature of these associations, two of which are described as new, are discussed. The most important gradients in the data matrix found by detrended correspondence analysis (DCA) are related to altitude/climate and rockiness/soil. The communities are well segregated in the ordination space, and the fairly distinct clusters of the three conifer species are discussed. These conifers may be arranged along a gradient of decreasing drought tolerance fromJuniperus throughAbies toPinus. The latter is predominant and most vital essentially on schistose soils, or else reflects previous disturbance by, e.g., wildfires.Juniperus drupacea is a subordinate low tree or shrub in Tripolitza limestoneAbies forest. The vitality ofAbies cephalonica as expressed by tree height and structure is best in theLilio-Abietetum, between 1300 and 1600 m. The community variation within the total area of theAbietion cephalonicae reflects a principal differentiation in xerophytic and mesophytic stands. This pattern is encountered in various mountains and suggests that water supply is the crucial factor governing the floristic variation in the mountain coniferous forests.

Winter spacing and non‐breeding social system of the Coal Tit Parus ater in a subalpine forest

In the genus Parus, non‐breeding social territoriality has often been attributed to the presence of food hoarding which, by increasing the value of an area, is thought to favour the existence of exclusive territories. To test this, it is necessary to analyse the social structure of hoarding populations inhabiting different environments. I studied Coal Tit spacing patterns and winter social systems in a colour‐ringed hoarding population inhabiting a mountain coniferous forest in the Pyrenees. Using data on home range, range overlap and social coherence, the social system was found to be based on adult birds that had previously bred together and which occupied relatively small home ranges. Large home ranges of resident juveniles overlapped extensively with each other and with those of adults. However, resident juveniles were resighted much closer to their ringing place than was expected at random, suggesting restricted floater ranges. Associations, composed mainly of juveniles, seemed to be rather large and loose, with little coherence. No territorial defence by any group of birds was detected during the study. Therefore, the social organization described for the present Coal Tit population is similar to the loose, non‐territorial basic flock system of non‐hoarding species. Resident social patterns seemed to be linked primarily to the availability of breeding resources, probably leading to the high site fidelity of adults and the floater life of resident juveniles. On the other hand, short‐term survival chances may attract transients to a rich food supply and thus affect flocking strategies of birds. High availability of resources allowing a high population density seems to be the main proximate factor influencing the spacing patterns described.

A study on the vegetation in the east side of Helan Mountain

This paper analyzed the vegetation data obtained from a field survey conducted in the East Side of Helan Mountain, China, to reveal the features of mountainous vegetation growing in a transitional zone between the steppe and desert regions. Detrended correspondence analysis (DCA) was applied to the process of analysis, to clarify the spatial variation of floristic composition of the vegetation in the lower mountain range. The preliminary results obtained from the analysis are: (1) There are 53 vegetation formations existing in the area, following the China’s criteria of vegetation classification system. (2) Those vegetation types compose a vertical vegetation spectrum in the East Side of Helan Mountain due to the climatic gradient caused by elevation variation. The spectrum consists of 4 zones. They are, from the foot up to the peak in turn, mountain steppe zone, mountain open forest and steppe zone, mountain coniferous forest zone, and alpine bush and meadow zone. The mountain coniferous forest zone can be further divided into two subzones: Pine forest subzone and Spruce forest subzone. (3) Most of the vegetation types show clear xeromorphic features due to the base zone of the vertical vegetation spectrum lying in the arid region of China. (4) The distribution of vegetation types and flora is sensitive and susceptible to the moisture condition that the vertical vegetation spectrum has quite different expressions between northern and southern exposures. (5) Floristic composition of the vegetation shows a northern temperate feature. The families that are rich in species in the area include Gramineae, Compositae, Leguminosae, Chenopodiaceae, Rosaceae and others, most of which are abundant in herbaceous species. (6) The variation of the ecological conditions from the north to the south also leads to the differentiation of vegetation and its floristic composition in the area. (7) The broad-leaved forest can not form a forest zone in the vertical vegetation spectrum. This may be a special characteristic of the spectrum sitting on a transitional zone between the steppe and desert regions.

The contribution of coarse woody debris to carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus cycles in three Rocky Mountain coniferous forests

The contribution of coarse woody debris to C, N, and P cycles was assessed in forests of lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta Dougl. ex Loud.), white spruce (Picea glauca (Moench Voss), and subalpine fir (Abies lasiocarpa (Hook.) Nutt.) - Engelmann spruce (Picea engelmannii Parry ex Engelm.) in southwestern Alberta. Mass loss and changes in C, N, and P concentrations in decomposing log segments were measured for 14 years. Litter input was measured during 10 years for coarse woody debris, 1 year for ground vegetation, and 5 years for other aboveground litter types. Release of C, N and P from decomposing litter were simulated for a period of 40 years. After 14 years, log segments of pine, spruce, and fir had lost on average 71, 38, and 40%, respectively, of their dry mass. The N content of the pine logs increased, spruce changed little, and fir lost N. Phosphorus accumulated in all logs. The greatest imports of N and P occurred at the pine sites and fir sites, respectively, where these nutrients were the least available, indicating that wood decay organisms may compete with vegetation for limiting nutrients in these forests. Coarse woody debris comprised 3-24% of aboveground litter and contributed less than 5% of the N and P released. Coarse woody debris does not appear to make a significant contribution to N and P cycling in these forests.

The contribution of coarse woody debris to carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus cycles in three Rocky Mountain coniferous forests

The contribution of coarse woody debris to carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus cycles in three Rocky Mountain coniferous forests

Carbon to Organic Matter Ratios for Soils in Rocky Mountain Coniferous Forests

AbstractVegetation type, soils, climate, and conversion ratios influence estimates of terrestrial C. Our objectives were to (i) determine carbon to organic matter (C/OM) ratios for brown cubical rotten wood, litter, surface humus, soil wood, and mineral soils; (ii) evaluate the validity of using 0.58 and 0.50 ratios for estimating C in mineral and organic soil components, respectively; and (iii) determine if C/OM relationships were applicable across broad geographic areas. The study sites were located from the southern to northern Rocky Mountains. They differed in vegetation, soil parent material, and climate. The C/OM regression slopes we developed for organic components were quite consistent and relatively constant across vegetation types ranging from 0.43 to 0.51 and were similar to the 0.50 traditional ratio. The C/OM regression slopes for mineral soils ranged from 0.16 to 0.48 depending on vegetation type. These slopes were lower than the 0.58 ratio often applied. The reliability of simple ratios when used in estimating C as a function of organic matter is often overestimated. Error and bias can be introduced into C estimates when using simple ratios. This study refined C/OM regressions for mineral soils and provided regressions for organic soil components. Information developed in this study can be applied to improve regional and global C assessments.

Composition and distribution of vegetation in cold temperate region of northeastern part of China

Cold-temperate region of China is an independent and the most northern one of the 8 vegetation regions of China. The specific composition of the vegetation in this region, besides the polytopic species, East-Siberia floral element is dominant (51.5%), but mixed with Mandshurica (38.7%) and Mongolia (2.3%) in horizontal vegetation zone. The floral elements vary greatly with altitude, in higher and the highest parts, they are mixed with Kantcaja-Erhock and Arctic alpine floral elements. The vertical distribution include 3 zones: subalpine dwarf forest zone, mountainous coniferous wood land zone and mountainous coniferous forest zone, and the last one include 3 subzones.

Simulating effects of fire on northern Rocky Mountain landscapes with the ecological process model FIRE-BGC.

A mechanistic, biogeochemical succession model, FIRE-BGC, was used to investigate the role of fire on long-term landscape dynamics in northern Rocky Mountain coniferous forests of Glacier National Park, Montana, USA. FIRE-BGC is an individual-tree model-created by merging the gap-phase process-based model FIRESUM with the mechanistic ecosystem biogeochemical model FOREST-BGC-that has mixed spatial and temporal resolution in its simulation architecture. Ecological processes that act at a landscape level, such as fire and seed dispersal, are simulated annually from stand and topographic information. Stand-level processes, such as tree establishment, growth and mortality, organic matter accumulation and decomposition, and undergrowth plant dynamics are simulated both daily and annually. Tree growth is mechanistically modeled based on the ecosystem process approach of FOREST-BGC where carbon is fixed daily by forest canopy photosynthesis at the stand level. Carbon allocated to the tree stem at the end of the year generates the corresponding diameter and height growth. The model also explicitly simulates fire behavior and effects on landscape characteristics. We simulated the effects of fire on ecosystem characteristics of net primary productivity, evapotranspiration, standing crop biomass, nitrogen cycling and leaf area index over 200 years for the 50,000-ha McDonald Drainage in Glacier National Park. Results show increases in net primary productivity and available nitrogen when fires are included in the simulation. Standing crop biomass and evapotranspiration decrease under a fire regime. Shade-intolerant species dominate the landscape when fires are excluded. Model tree increment predictions compared well with field data.

Biomass of Coarse Woody Debris Following Disturbance in Rocky Mountain Coniferous Forests

Primary productivity, the accumulation of nutrients, and other important ecosystem processes are largely dependent on the mineral soil organic matter that has developed during hundreds or thousands of years. In forest ecosystems, the decomposition of coarse woody debris, woody roots, twigs, leaves and micro-organisms is a primary source of this organic matter. Large quantities of coarse woody debris are typically produced following natural disturbances such as fires, pest/pathogen outbreaks, and windstorms, and make a significant contribution to the formation of soil organic matter (SOM). In contrast, timber harvesting often removes most of the coarse woody debris (CWD), which could result in a decrease in the quantity and a change in the quality of mineral soil organic matter. The 1988 fires in Yellowstone National Park continue to provide an excellent opportunity to study the effects of fires of various intensities on ecosystem processes. Ecosystems develop under conditions that are constantly changing, but which remain within some range of natural variability. At present, national forest managers are uncertain as to the quantity of CWD which should be left in a stand following timber harvest in order to maintain levels of SOM which are within the range of natural variability. Little empirical data exist which help characterize the range of natural variability with regard to CWD in lodgepole pine forests, and it is therefore difficult to assess current timber harvesting practices in terms of how much CWD should be left at each site. We began a pilot study in late summer 1995 to begin to address this deficiency. A larger study of broader scope is planned for an additional two to three years, beginning this year, in 1996. This research will attempt to measure specific processes which include the distribution, decomposition, combustion by natural fires, and removal of CWD. The specific objectives of our study are: i) compare the mass and distribution of coarse woody debris that remains following fires of varying intensities to that which remains following clearcutting in the Rocky Mountain Region; ii) estimate the amount of CWD that is combusted or converted to charcoal following fires of varying intensities in stands of varying stages of development; and iii) estimate the length of time necessary for every square meter of the forest soil to be affected by CWD under natural conditions.

The Effects of Fire on Coarse Woody Debris in Rocky Mountain Coniferous Forests

Primary productivity, the accumulation of nutrients, and other important ecosystem processes are largely dependent on the mineral soil organic matter that has developed during hundreds or thousands of years. In forest ecosystems, the decomposition of coarse woody debris, woody roots, twigs, leaves and micro-organisms is a primary source of this organic matter. Large quantities of coarse woody debris are typically produced following natural disturbances such as fires, pest/pathogen outbreaks, and windstorms, which make a significant contribution to the formation of soil organic matter (SOM). In contrast, timber harvesting often removes most of the coarse woody debris (CWD), which could result in a decrease in the quantity and a change in the quality of mineral soil organic matter.

Root Gap Dynamics in Lodgepole Pine Forest: Nitrogen Transformations in Gaps of Different Size

Belowground responses to aboveground disturbance were studied in experimental gaps created in a 95—yr—old stand of Pinus contorta in southeastern Wyoming. One—, 5—, 15—, and 30—tree clusters were felled to create a series of gaps in the root mat, and solution—phase N was monitored over two consecutive snow—melt periods via tension—tube water collectors. We hypothesized that dissolved and extractable nitrogen concentrations would not exceed predisturbance levels until a threshold canopy gap size had been achieved. As predicted, NOx—N attained significantly higher solution N concentrations (2—5 mg/L) only with the death of 15 trees or more. However, dissolved organic nitrogen decreased gradually with increasing gap size. Net mineralization and nitrification were studied using 30—d in situ incubation assays in each gap. Extractable nitrate routinely was negligible until the 30—tree gaps had been attained. Predicting the effects of disturbance on nutrient cycling, including timber—harvesting practices, requires information on belowground responses to gap formation. Our experiments suggest that gap size is important; removal of 15—30 tree clusters represented a threshold above which significant losses of available N to the groundwater may be incurred, at least in Rocky Mountain coniferous forests.

Nutrient release from decomposing litter in Rocky Mountain coniferous forests: influence of nutrient availability

We examined patterns of N and P uptake and release from a wide variety of litter types, including leaves, needles, moss, roots, and wood, for 4 years in three forests (lodgepole pine (Pinuscontorta Loud.), white spruce (Piceaglauca (Moench) Voss)–lodgepole pine, and Engelmann spruce (Piceaengelmannii Parry ex Engelm.)–subalpine fir (Abieslasiocarpa (Hook.) Nutt.)) and a small clearcut, in the Rocky Mountains of Alberta. Decomposition was more rapid and N release began sooner in the clearcut than in the forests, but N release began at the same stage of decomposition at all sites. In most litter types, a period of net immobilization of N was followed by a period of net release; only litter types particularly rich in N had an initial leaching phase. Each litter type initially gained or lost N depending on its original concentration, such that N contents converged after 1 or 2 years. The N content at convergence differed among litter types. Phosphorus was usually released immediately. The rate of P loss also varied according to the initial P concentration, and the P contents of all litter types converged within 1 year. The availability of N and P in the forest floor did not affect the rate of N and P release from a standard substrate placed at all sites. The concentrations of N and P in the litter influenced the rate of uptake of N or P during the first 1–3 years, but was not consistently related to nutrient availability in the forest floors at the four sites.

Migration characteristics of microelements in process of landscape geochemistry in Mt. Namjagbarwa area

To provide scientific basis for appraising natural resources in Mt. Namjagbarwa area, the migration characteristics of geochemical microelements, such as Zn, V, Ti, Pb, Ni, Cu, Cr, Co, Be and Ba, in the landscape zones of alpine scrub and meadow, the mountainous dark coniferous forest, the mountainous mixed broadleaf and coniferous forest, the mountainous quasi-subtropical semi-evergreen broadleaf forest, the mountainous subtropical evergreen broadleaf forest, and the valley quasi-tropical monsoon rainforest have been described in the paper.