Mountain Slopes Research Articles

Effects of soil water on fungal community composition along elevational gradients on the northern slope of the Central Kunlun Mountains

Effects of soil water on fungal community composition along elevational gradients on the northern slope of the Central Kunlun Mountains

Study on its application and unstable risk subarea estimation method of mountainous traffic engineering’s spoil ground

Residues disposal areas with different quantities and scales are produced with the traffic engineering construction in mountainous areas construction, whose environment security threats need to be termly estimated. Countermeasures are adopted by estimated results, and safety risk management and control of waste dump engineering are realized. Based on field research and data access, stage characteristics of the process is summarized. Then force equilibrium and moving balance equation of waste dump sliding body at different stages are formed. So, risk grades and subarea labeled by red, yellow and green colors based on different moving distances are established. Finally, traditional way and the failure risk subarea assessment method are compared in practice, which proves feasibility of the method. Main conclusions are as following. 1) Fail process of mountainous highway waste slag slope is divided into initial limit equilibrium stage, speed-up downslide stage on slipping surface in which the sliding friction coefficient continues to decrease with acceleration, and speed-down downside stage on ground surface in which the sliding friction coefficient continues to increase with the deceleration. 2) Force balance equation at initial stage, downslide force formula at speed-up downslide stage and anti-slide force formula at speed-down downslide stage are presented by sliding body mechanical model on slipping surface and ground surface. Maximum moving velocity formula at the toe of the slope is established. And moving distance of waste dump sliding body is induced by energy balance equation. 3) Minimum and maximum of moving distance are computed under maximum and minimum of sliding friction coefficient conditions. According to these distances, safety threats of fail waste dump are classified into three grades: red region being high risk locates, yellow region being middle risk locates, green region being low risk. Relying on practical residues disposal area, disadvantage and advantage of the method and traditional method are compared. Found that mechanical mechanism of the method is simple, forces and parameters are all unified in balance equations, which meets to practical waste dump fail process. And the method does good to guiding mountainous residues disposal area unstable risk assessment.

Usefulness of time-lapse camera for evaluating frost heave on bare mountain slopes

Usefulness of time-lapse camera for evaluating frost heave on bare mountain slopes

Comparative study of traditional and lab-scale roasting method for unpeeled robusta coffee in Bromo-Tengger-Semeru mountain slope regions

Comparative study of traditional and lab-scale roasting method for unpeeled robusta coffee in Bromo-Tengger-Semeru mountain slope regions

About Spontaneous Avalanches on The Slopes of The East Kazakhstan Region

The paper analyzes the avalanche-prone situation on the mountain slopes of the East Kazakhstan region. A brief overview of the avalanche hazard is provided, taking into account constant (height, slope, uneven ground of mountainous terrain) and variable factors (meteorological conditions). The authors analyzed the data of the meteorological situation for the little-studied Altai site (Bogatyrevskaya mine), which is dangerous with spontaneous avalanches. A schematic map of the avalanche-prone zone of the studied area was constructed using the QGIS program. The influence of the main meteorological conditions (air temperature, wind speed, snow cover height, precipitation) on avalanche activity has been studied. Data on spontaneous gatherings for the period from 2015 to 2023 were processed. The connection of spontaneous gatherings with meteorological conditions was established. The obtained results can be used to assess the avalanche danger in the little-studied in this direction territory of East Kazakhstan region. The results of scientific research obtained during the implementation of a scientific and technical program on the topic: «Research of avalanche activity in the East Kazakhstan region for development of monitoring systems and scientific substantiation of their placement» (IRN BR21882022) within the framework of program-targeted financing are presented.

A method of Increasing the Area of the Herbage on Mountain Forage Lands

The present study reveals that up to 60 percent of mountain grasslands are strewn with stones. Their removal can significantly expand forage land and decrease animal injuries. It has been found out that there are no small-sized units capable of removing stones on sloped terrains. (Research purpose) The research aims to develop and construct a laboratory prototype of a stone removal unit adapted to the Feng Shou 180 mini-tractor, specifically for use on slopes. This unit is intended to facilitate the rehabilitation of mountain regions that are otherwise unsuitable for livestock farming, and enhance soil resistance to both water and wind erosion. (Materials and methods) The technology has been substantiated and the unit prototype has been constructed. The tests were conducted in the mountainous area of the Republic of North Ossetia-Alania, at an altitude of 1540 meters above sea level. The stones were removed from a section of the northern slope with a steepness of 13 degrees in the village of Dargavs. Technical expertise, bench and field tests of the unit were performed in accordance with agrotechnical standards and technical specifications. (Results and discussion) As a result a laboratory prototype of a stone removal unit adapted to the Feng Shou 180 mini-tractor was produced. It is determined that the laboratory prototype meets the agrotechnical standards and technical specifications. The unit proves to effectively remove stones larger than 30 millimeters with an efficiency rate of 91-93 percent. Additionally, it has been demonstrated that the first year of using the unit results in a 90-95 percent increase in the productivity of forage lands. (Conclusions) The use of this unit on mountain slopes significantly enhances the usable area and improves the water-air and nutrient regimes. This adjustment also alters the species composition of the vegetation, increasing the legume component to 16.7 percent and the cereal component to 47.3 percent. Our findings underscore the potential benefits and feasibility of further developing and deploying this prototype on densely stoned forage lands with slopes of up to 13 degrees.

РЕСУРСОВЕДЧЕСКОЕ ИССЛЕДОВАНИЕ НЕКОТОРЫХ ВИДОВ ЛЕКАРСТВЕННЫХ РАСТЕНИЙ ФЛОРЫ АЗЕРБАЙДЖАНА

The results of the study on the distribution, reserves, phytocenotic features and medicinal properties of some of- ficinal (Centaurium pulchellum (Sw.) Druce, Filipendula vulgaris Moench, Ononis arvensis L., Peucedanum ruthenicum M. Bieb., Polygonum carneum K.Koch, Teucrium chamaedrys L.) and promising, in terms of inclusion in the Pharmacopoeial List, widespread medicinal plants (Erigeron canadensis L., Euphorbia amygdaloides L., Doronicum macrophyllum Fisch., Galium verum L., Leucanthemum vulgare Lam., Pulicaria dysenterica subsp. uliginosa Nyman, Solidago virgaurea L., Stachys byzantina K.Koch, Verbena officinalis L.) of the flora of Azerbai- jan are presented. The studied taxa are distributed from the lowlands to the subalpine belt and grow in forest, moun- tain meadow, mountain steppe vegetation, as well as in agrocenoses. Most of them participate as dominants and sub- dominants of legume-grass-forb, steppe and forest phytocenoses. Some species growing in the Gusar and Guba re- gions on humid subalpine meadows and mountain slopes form formations. In particular: Doronicum macrophyllum (Doronicumeta) – in the form of yellow spots; Leucanthemum vulgare (Leucanthemumeta) – in the form of a solid white carpet; Stachys byzantinа (Stachyseta) – in the form of a gray carpet; Verbena officinalis – in the form of a lilac carpet. As a result of the conducted research, it was established that the exploitable reserves of the studied taxa, in terms of air-dried raw materials, vary within a fairly wide range (from 0.33 to 91.2 tons). In this case, the largest exploitable reserves and the possibility of annual procurement, taking into account the generally accepted method of calculating these data based on the life form of plants, are possessed by: P. dysenterica subsp. uliginosa (63.6 and 12.7 t respectively) V. officinalis (81.8 and 16.4 t), E. amygdaloides (91.2 and 18.2 t) and E. canadensis (27.1 and 13.6 t) and the smallest – P. carneum (1.0 and 0.2 t) and C. pulchellum (0.33 and 0.17 t). If the presence of sufficiently high volumes of biological and exploitable reserves of the four species indicat- ed suggests the possibility of their procurement, then in relation to P. carneum and C. pulchellum there is a need to take preventive measures to limit their collection. Collection of other studied taxa, which have a wide range and are distributed throughout Azerbaijan, is per- mitted only at the local level and in strict compliance with the rules for collecting medicinal plants.

Feeding potential of vascular plants for snow sheep (Оvis nivicola Eschscholtz) in the northern spurs of the Chuvansky Ridge (Chukotka Autonomous Area)

In order to assess the forage resources for the snow sheep, a section of the upper reaches of the Ozernoye Gorlo River (southern Chukotka, the Anadyr River basin, the northern spurs of the Chuvansky Ridge) were surveyed in August 2021. The northern border of the population of the Yakutian snow sheep subspecies Ovis nivicola lydekkeri Kowarzik (1913) that lives in the Chuvansky Ridge system passes through this territory. As a result of the increased anthropogenic pressure, the snow sheep numbers in Chukotka decreased significantly at the turn of the 70s of the last century, which determined the inclusion of the sheep in the regional Red Book (issued in 2008 and 2022). The surveyed area was estimated to have low sheep numbers of about 7 heads/100 km2. This area has a vegetation that is typical for the mountain systems of Northeast Asia. The height of mountain peaks varies from (900) 1200 to 1300 (1400) m above sea level. Forest communities in the river valley are extremely reduced. Cedar elfin patches widespread on the mountain slopes turn into shrub and lichen tundra higher up. The flora of the surveyed area has been found to include 127 species of vascular plants from 77 genera and 38 families. According to the literature sources and our observations, 116 species (66 genera, 30 families) belong to forage plants for the snow sheep, including 74 species known as the feed of these animals in Chukotka. According to the visual assessment of the availability and phytomass reserves of the identified forage plants, 24 main species and 24 secondary ones may have significant forage value for the snow sheep. Taking into account the moss and lichen resources in this area, it can be concluded that the feeding base of the snow sheep here is not a limiting factor for the existing and much larger numbers of these animals.

Landscape changes caused by the 2024 Noto Peninsula earthquake in Japan.

Landscapes are shaped by tectonic, climatic, and surface processes over geological timescales, but we rarely witness the events of marked landscape change. The moment magnitude 7.5 Noto Peninsula earthquake in central Japan was caused by a large thrust faulting, up to nearly 10 meters of slip, that expanded more than 150 kilometers along the fault zone. The deformation field reconstructed from satellite data and field surveys reveals up to 4.4 meters of uplift and associated coastal advance along the entire northern coast of the peninsula, meter-scale systematic movement of the mountain slopes consistent with slip on flexural faults, and activation of secondary inland faults, suggesting synchronized ruptures. The findings show excellent consistency between the coseismic deformation and geomorphic features and provide a vivid example of the role of a major earthquake in landscape formation.

Exploring the Influence of Urban Density and Mountainous Topography on Local Wind Patterns: An experimental study of Hongkong, China

The urban wind flow of the canopy layer has a significant impact on the urban climate, as well as the ventilation, pollutant diffusion, and thermal comfort. Therefore, the related studies are gaining attention in the last decade. The purpose of this study is to figure out the impacts of urban morphology and mountain topography on the urban wind flow, taking the pedestrian level height of Hong Kong as an example. Three wind tunnel test series were conducted, exploring scenarios with/without proposed high-rise buildings, as well as urban areas in two large city centers with/without upstream mountain terrain. Results indicate a 300m high-rise building affects wind flow up to approximately 125m upstream, yielding a 12% of velocity increase. Street wind speed peaks when the approaching wind aligns within 25° of the street's orientation, with building height and deviation on street sides significantly impacting wind speeds compared to street width. Additionally, the results reveal that mountain height primarily influences the reduction of pedestrian-level wind velocity, with less effect from distance and mountain slope in relation to the urban area.

The structure control on volcanic spring pattern distribution eastern slope of Salak Mountain and western slope of Pangrango Mountain on Cisadane upstream watershed, Bogor, West Java, Indonesia

Abstract This study investigated the structures affecting spring distribution patterns and types study in the upstream Cisadane Watershed of Bogor Regency, on the east and west slopes of Mount Salak and Mount Pangrango. The morphotectonic and structural analyses were performed using the Landsat digital elevation model (DEM) and satellite imagery data processing. Initial information about geological structures was gathered by examining and determining the lineament, or straightness, of hills and slopes to derive broad patterns. Calculating morphotectonic and structural straightness (lineament) connected with the distribution pattern of springs was performed as the descriptive, quantitative, and correlative approach. The findings indicated a relationship between the morphotectonic general pattern of structure and influence on the properties and distribution of springs and the straightness pattern of hills and valleys. The active morphotectonic analysis result revealed moderate to high-class active tectonics. The northwest-southeast and southwest-northeast directions were indicated by the lineament analysis results; the density of the lineament pattern determined the spring distribution pattern.

Use of small-sized units when spreading fertilizers on mountain slopes

BACKGROUND: The results of RD on a laboratory sample of the unit for spreading mineral fertilizers on mountain slopes, which can increase labor productivity and yield rate of mountain forage lands by 15–20%, are presented. AIM: Development of a small–sized laboratory sample of the unit for surface spreading of mineral fertilizers, ensuring accelerated restoration of productive and qualitative functions of natural grass stands of fallow forage lands. METHODS: The technical expertise and testing of the unit and the technology were carried out in the mountainous zone of the Republic of North Ossetia — Alania (Dargava basin, the station of North Caucasian Research Institute of Highland and Piedmont Agriculture) at an altitude of 1540 meters above sea level. The indicators of the test conditions and functional performance of the unit have been determined according to the OST 10.5.1-2000 industry standard. Surface fertilization was carried out according to the OST 10.7.1.-2000. “Testing of agricultural machinery. Machines for applying mineral fertilizers, lime materials and gypsum” industry standard. The study subject was the technology of spreading granular fertilizers, the design of the unit and working bodies: pendulum spreading devices, spreading rates and method of spreading fertilizers. RESULTS: A laboratory sample of the small-sized unit based on the KChG-2.4 cultivator of North Caucasian Research Institute of Highland and Piedmont Agriculture design for surface application of mineral fertilizers has been developed and manufactured. The block module is a hinged frame structure with a tow-lifting device, pendulum spreading tubes and rolling rollers installed on it. The considered motion of the mining unit is across the slope from top to bottom in a shuttle manner with rolling of the sown granules by rolling rollers. The tests were carried out on a rarefied section of the northern slope with a steepness of 13–16° in the area “Sugsadtanrag”. CONCLUSION: The practical application of the small-sized unit for surface spreading of mineral fertilizers with their subsequent rolling in areas in mountainous and foothill zones will ensure a reduction in the degradation processes of slope areas by accelerating the restoration of the quality and quantity of perennial grasses of fallow forage lands.

About the ice-rock collapse from the northern slope of Mt. Dykhtau on August 12, 2023 and the potential threat of collapse from the slope of Mt. Dzhangitau (Cherek-Bezengiysky River basin, Central Caucasus)

The causes and consequences of the ice-rock fall that occurred in 2023 on the Mount Dykhtau (Side ridge of the Greater Caucasus) are analyzed. This happened in the early morning of August 12, 2023 on the northern slope of Mt. Dykhtau (5.204.7 m a.s.l.) in the upper reaches of the Mizhirgi River valley of the Cherek Bezengiysky River basin at the altitude of about 4.400 m. The analysis of Sentinel-2 and Landsat-7 ETM+ satellite images of different times made possible to reveal the place where a block of ice had fallen from the hanging glacier, and to determine the area affected by this ice-rock block which volume was estimated as close to 0.9-1.0 million m3 and a distance of the runout about 2.3 km. As a result of the collapse, a group of tourists were injured, one of whom died. Investigation of the dynamics of the collapse site for the period 2015–2023 showed that earlier in the period September 3 – November 12, 2015 a crack formed on the same hanging glacier massif, which continued to grow until January 2016. This was followed by several ice-rock falls, the largest of which happened in the period April 10 – June 19, 2016. In total, all collapses of 2016 were comparable in volume to the collapse of 2023. By this time, the hanging glacier had been fully restored and occupied the same position it had in 2015. We next investigated a part of the slope of the Dzhangitau Zapadnaya mountain (5059 m a.s.l.) on the Bezengi Wall massif, on the hanging glacier of which the formation of a crack with a length of about 400 m was revealed in the summer of 2023. By September, the crack width had increased to 40 m. Leyer on, the crack became stable. But in the period of September ‒ December a certain surge of the glacier at the foot of Dzhangitau Zapadnaya mountain was revealed at a speed of about 1 m per day with the formation of a prominent frontal bank overlying the Bezengi Glacier. This research confirmed the activation of the landslide processes in the high-altitude zone and showed the need for continuous monitoring based on the analysis of satellite images for the timely revealing areas with a potential threat of any ice-rock falls and warning about the danger.

Comparing Airborne and Along-Sidewall Ground-Based Measurements to Retrieve Thermal and PM10 Concentration Profiles in Two Alpine Valleys

Abstract The paper aims at investigating the effectiveness of estimating vertical profiles of air temperature and PM10 concentrations in Alpine valleys through ground stations positioned at different altitudes on one valley sidewall (i.e., pseudovertical profiles). Two case studies in the Italian Alps are investigated: Chiese Valley in Trentino Province and Camonica Valley in the Lombardy region. Vertical profiles of temperature and PM10 concentrations were derived from airborne measurements at the center of the two valleys by means of low-cost sensors installed on a drone during summer 2019 and a tethered balloon during winter 2020. At the same time, five stations, equipped with the same kind of low-cost sensors, simultaneously monitored the same variables on one mountain slope. Comparisons between pseudoprofiles and airborne soundings revealed that ground stations well approximated temperature and PM10 soundings during the night and early morning, while temperatures along the slopes were higher than in the center of the valley during daytime, due to solar radiative heating, with larger differences in summer than in winter. On the contrary, some episodes with PM10 concentrations slightly higher in the valley center than on the slope were recorded, due to transport events and upslope winds. Nonetheless, the pseudoprofiles based on slope ground measurements faithfully reproduced the vertical gradients of both air temperature and PM10 if compared to those assessed from the soundings performed at the center of the two valleys. Results show that pseudovertical profiles can be a reliable and inexpensive method for continuous monitoring of vertical air temperature and PM10 distribution in mountain valleys. Significance Statement The purpose of this study is to understand whether ground-based measurements of air temperature and particulate matter on mountain slopes can be used as suitable surrogates of vertical atmospheric soundings with tethered balloons or drones in mountain environment. This is important because balloon and drone soundings are expensive and regulative constrained. The knowledge of the vertical distribution of air temperature is crucial to predict the distribution of air pollutants in valleys, namely, the particulate matter emitted by wood burning. Our results showed that ground-based measurements on mountain slopes made with low-cost sensors can satisfactorily reproduce vertical gradients of air temperature and distribution of particulate matter in a reliable and inexpensive way.

INFLUENCE OF MINERAL FERTILIZERS, SOIL STRUCTURE-FORMERS AND HERBICIDES ON THE GROWTH OF FOREST CROPS ON MOUNTAIN SLOPES OF THE CHATKALK RIDGE IN UZBEKISTAN

The article presents the results of research on the study of the effect of the complex use of mineral fertilizers, structure-forming agents and herbicides on the growth of the main forest-forming species in a hot and dry climate on the mountain slopes of the Chatkal ridge. The dynamics of the growth of forest crops over the years under the influence of mineral fertilizers, structure-forming agents "CMC" and "Polymeliorant" and the herbicide "Uragan forte", as well as their influence on the formation of soil structure and the intensity of its water permeability, are outlined.

Seismic response of a mid-story isolated stilted structure in mountainous areas.

Research on the SSI effect on flat sites has yielded many valuable conclusions. However, current research on the impacts of various special local terrains on structural dynamics remains limited. For mountainous areas, it is common to construct houses in a multi-step, climbing, and laterally staggered architectural form that follows the mountain terrain. Only through the analysis of the combined action of the upper and lower parts can the seismic performance of this type of structural form be better revealed; considering the influence of SSI effects will be closer to the actual seismic effects. Therefore, to identify the damage factors of the mid-story isolated stilted structures under earthquakes and provide optimized design plans for the structures, six models are established considering three slopes and two types of foundations based on the engineering case in Chongqing, China. Through the elastic-plastic time-history analysis under earthquakes in the down and transverse-slope directions, concludes, compared with not considering SSI, the seismic response of the mid-story isolated stilted structures considering SSI in mountainous areas is amplified. With the increase of the mountain slope, the seismic response of the structures considering SSI increases, and the amplification coefficients are between 1-1.8. The amplification coefficients of the structures without SSI are concentrated around 1, which is less influenced by the slope. The damage to the stilted isolated layer is mainly concentrated in the column and the beam end, and the maximum seismic response appears in the short columns. The foundation soil stress increases with the increase of the mountain slope.

Spatiotemporal variability of flash floods and their human impacts in the Czech Republic during the 2001–2023 period

Abstract. Flash floods, characterized by their sudden onset, extreme discharge, short duration, material damage, and human loss, represent a significant natural hazard. Not well covered by standard hydrological observations, flash flood data can primarily be derived from various types of documentary evidence. This evidence served as the main data source for creating a flash flood database for the Czech Republic from 2001 to 2023. This database enabled detailed analysis of different aspects of flash floods. The annual series of 233 flash flood events, 160 flash flood days, and 424 affected municipalities showed significant inter-annual variability but no linear trends. The triggering rainfall that generates flash floods was analyzed with respect to 1–3-hourly and daily precipitation totals and circulation types from the objective classification. While flash floods can occur anywhere, they were more frequently recorded at the foots of mountain slopes, often coinciding with “critical points” where built-up areas meet concentrated surface runoff pathways. The division of material damage caused by flash floods into eight categories indicated that the highest proportion of damage was to streets and communications (24.3 %), to houses (21.7 %), and to their cellars and basements (18.3 %). There were also 36 recorded fatalities. The understanding of flash floods in the Czech Republic aligns generally well with studies of flash floods in other European regions.

Aiouea ombrophila (Lauraceae), a new large tree from the wet mountains of the Atlantic Rainforest, Brazil

The study of tree species in the Brazilian Atlantic Rainforest continues to reveal new discoveries. Herbarium collections often harbor specimens that do not fit into known taxa. During our research, we encountered an unidentified Lauraceae specimen, prompting us to conduct fieldwork in the forest to investigate further. This study describes Aiouea ombrophila Brotto & Völtz, a large tree from the rainiest parts of the mountainous slopes of Minas Gerais, Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo states, Brazil, at elevations between 950 and 2000 m. We provide a comprehensive description of the new species, including illustrations, a distribution map, an extinction risk assessment, and a comparative table distinguishing it from other species.

A systematic analysis of scan matching techniques for localization in dense orchards

In recent years, different methods have been studied to determine machinery position within a grove, as an alternative for complementing GNSS (global navigation satellite system) information in cases where GNSS signal is occluded. Such a situation can be observed when agricultural machinery travels under dense foliage or on the slopes of mountains. Scan matching techniques arise as a possible solution for localizing the machinery, complementing the absence of the GNSS signal when necessary. However, since key points are difficult to obtain in heterogeneous, unstructured and non-rigid environments (such as orchard plants), the performance of scan matching techniques often decreases in agricultural environments. This paper suggests dividing the point clouds into horizontal and vertical segments to improve the performance of scan-matching methods in orchards. It also examines the best way for registered frames to overlap. We validate the analysis with extensive experimentation in a Fuji apple orchard. The results show that the cumulative localization error in scan matching techniques can be notoriously decreased with selective parts of the orchard, by up to 60%. The experimentation performed herein suggests that the proposed methodology can complement the GNSS navigation in a middle-long path.

Using UAV RGB Images for Assessing Tree Species Diversity in Elevation Gradient of Zao Mountains

Vegetation biodiversity in mountainous regions is controlled by altitudinal gradients and their corresponding microclimate. Higher temperatures, shorter snow cover periods, and high variability in the precipitation regime might lead to changes in vegetation distribution in mountains all over the world. In this study, we evaluate vegetation distribution along an altitudinal gradient (1334–1667 m.a.s.l.) in the Zao Mountains, northeastern Japan, by means of alpha diversity indices, including species richness, the Shannon index, and the Simpson index. In order to assess vegetation species and their characteristics along the mountain slope selected, fourteen 50 m × 50 m plots were selected at different altitudes and scanned with RGB cameras attached to Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs). Image analysis revealed the presence of 12 dominant tree and shrub species of which the number of individuals and heights were validated with fieldwork ground truth data. The results showed a significant variability in species richness along the altitudinal gradient. Species richness ranged from 7 to 11 out of a total of 12 species. Notably, species such as Fagus crenata, despite their low individual numbers, dominated the canopy area. In contrast, shrub species like Quercus crispula and Acer tschonoskii had high individual numbers but covered smaller canopy areas. Tree height correlated well with canopy areas, both representing tree size, which has a strong relationship with species diversity indices. Species such as F. crenata, Q. crispula, Cornus controversa, and others have an established range of altitudinal distribution. At high altitudes (1524–1653 m), the average shrubs’ height is less than 4 m, and the presence of Abies mariesii is negligible because of high mortality rates caused by a severe bark beetle attack. These results highlight the complex interactions between species abundance, canopy area, and altitude, providing valuable insights into vegetation distribution in mountainous regions. However, species diversity indices vary slightly and show some unusually low values without a clear pattern. Overall, these indices are higher at lower altitudes, peak at mid-elevations, and decrease at higher elevations in the study area. Vegetation diversity indices did not show a clear downward trend with altitude but depicted a vegetation composition at different altitudes as controlled by their surrounding environment. Finally, UAVs showed their significant potential for conducting large-scale vegetation surveys reliably and in a short time, with low costs and low manpower.