Termite Mounds Research Articles

Use of lignocellulose-degrading enzyme bio-cemented soils in the construction industry

In their activity, termites break down biomass into glucose, forming cementitious compounds. This results in rainfall-resistant mounds for their shelters, which interests the construction industry. This study explored the potential application of the abundant naturally bio-cemented termite mound soils in highway construction. Experimental investigations compared these mound soils to surrounding soils, revealing that mound soils are 68.2% finer in particle size distribution and have 81.4% lower organic content. Atterberg limits indicated 14.6% higher plasticity and a 5.3% increase in specific gravity for mound soils. Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy (AAS) showed no significant difference in chemical composition. Proctor tests indicated that the compaction characteristics of the soils were comparable, confirming their engineering viability without modifications. Mound soils exhibited a twofold increase in Unconfined Compressive Strength (UCS) and a 33.9% increment in California Bearing Ratio (CBR) strength. One-way ANOVA tests confirmed these differences with p-value ranges of 0.0056-0.0361 below the 0.05 significance threshold. The study advocates utilising eco-friendly naturally bio-cemented mound soils in highway construction, meeting minimum standards. Mound soils from one acre can construct up to 2,500m highway, optimising resource use, promoting sustainability by repurposing natural materials, and significantly reducing carbon emissions. Further research on soil improvement using lignocellulose-degrading enzymes is recommended.

Microbial landscapes in Trinervitermes trinervoides termite colonies are affected by mound compartments and soil properties but not by symbiotic Podaxis fungi

Termites are important ecosystem engineers and play key roles in modulating microbial communities within and outside their mounds. Microbial diversity within termite mounds is generally lower than surrounding soils, due to termite-associated antimicrobial compounds and active sanitary behaviours. Microbial symbionts of termites can also influence the microbial landscape, by inhibiting or out-competing other microbes. Certain members of the arid habitat fungal genus Podaxis (Agaricomycetes; Agaricaceae) are symbiotic with savannah specialist grass-cutting termites, with the potential to influence mound-associated microbiomes. To test this, we characterized fungal (ITS2) and bacterial (16S rRNA) communities within and outside 49 Trinervitermes trinervoides mounds with and without Podaxis fruiting bodies across a 1000 km transect in South Africa. We predicted that Podaxis would be a dominant member of the fungal communities in mounds and negatively impact microbial diversity. Further, we explored how environmental variables shaped microbial communities, including whether soil elemental composition affected Podaxis presence. As expected, we observed less diverse fungal communities, but not bacterial communities, within than outside mounds, while microbial communities differed by sampling regions and mound compartments. Podaxis sequences were present in 48 out of 49 mounds in low relative abundances, and neither fruiting body presence nor sequence abundance were associated with microbial community diversity or composition. There was, however, an overall association between the presence of Podaxis fruiting bodies and elemental composition, with different elements displaying varying associations depending on geographic region. Both environmental variables and soil elements associated with fungal and bacterial taxa, indicating that they are key drivers of microbial community composition. Taken together, our findings suggest that microbial landscapes in termite mounds are not strongly influenced by Podaxis but mainly driven by termite filtering and regional abiotic variables and elemental compositions.

Chimpanzees employ context-specific behavioral strategies within fission-fusion societies.

Fission-fusion social systems allow individuals to make flexible choices about where, with whom, and in what contexts to spend their time in response to competing social and ecological pressures. The ability for fission-fusion societies to support individual behavioral strategies that vary across contexts has been suggested, but the potential function of such context-specific social choices remains largely understudied. We adopted the concept of social niche construction to explore possible differences in social complexity at the individual and group level across feeding contexts. Specifically, we examined patterns of co-attendance across two common ecological contexts in wild Central African chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes troglodytes) in the Goualougo Triangle, Republic of Congo. From data compiled over 6years, we used multidimensional social network analysis to study the patterns of co-attendance generated from 436 group scans at Ficus and 4527 visits to termite mounds. These two contexts were chosen, because they are both fixed spatial features across the landscape that serve as well-defined points to compare association patterns. We identified context-specific social niche construction in a fission-fusion chimpanzee society that produce different patterns of relationships and social complexity that are consistent in their expression over many years, and offer functional benefits. While enhancing our understanding of chimpanzee behavioral strategies, culture, and conservation, our investigation also indicates that the social niche construction framework aids in elucidating the evolutionary advantages of fission-fusion sociality by accounting for intra- and interindividual variability, cognition, and choice in newfound ways.

Arsenic content in tissues, Fungus combs, Herbs, Termite mounds and Soils of termites of the genus Macrotermes and assessment of the health risk associated with their food use in the industrial zone of the Societe Nouvelle Des phosphates du Togo (SNPT)

Arsenic is present in different environmental matrices of the phosphate mining and processing area of the Société Nouvelle des Phosphates du Togo; including termite tissues, termite waste, termite mounds, termite Fungus combs, soils and nearby herbs. Arsenic levels vary across matrices, with termite waste having the highest concentration (approximately 27.01 mg/kg) compared to the outside herbs, which have the lowest. Phosphate mining sites, including Hahotoé-Kpogamé and Akoumapé, have higher levels of As contamination in soils and termite tissues compared to the phosphate processing site. A positive correlation is observed between As levels in termite tissues and termite waste; suggesting an ability of termites to eliminate arsenic via their waste. Regarding health risks, the hazard quotient (HQ) for arsenic in termites exceeds 1, and for non-threshold effects, the excess individual risk (EIR) assessment gives EIR > 10-4 in both adults and children; which would mean that termite consumption poses a significant health risk, including cancer risks for human populations, particularly children. However, it should be noted that the estimation in this study includes total As (organic and inorganic). Since the toxicological reference values were calculated on the basis of inorganic arsenic, which presents more hazard and whose fraction represents 10% of total As, the daily exposure dose values for adults and children represent 1.40.10-4 mg/kg/d and 1.02.10-4 mg/kg/d of inorganic arsenic, respectively. These doses will then become lower than the toxicological reference value (TRV) with the consequence of hazard quotient (HQ) lower than 1 and resulting in low risks of carcinogenic effects. It is therefore necessary to specifically determine the inorganic fraction to refine the risk assessment and to extend this study to other trace elements in the prospected area.

Three-layered functionally specialized nest structures enhance strength and water retention in mounds of Globitermes sulphureus (Blattodea: Termitidae).

Termite mounds are a ubiquitous feature of savanna ecosystems, yet the mechanisms by which termites (Blattodea: Termitoidae) mitigate the challenges posed by seasonal drought and flooding through mound construction remain insufficiently explored. This study investigates the material properties, water retention capabilities, and resistance to raindrop penetration across three distinct layers of Globitermes sulphureus (Haviland, 1898) (Blattodea: Termitidae) nests. Our findings reveal a pronounced diversification and specialization of materials and functions across these layers. Specifically, the outer layer has decreased moisture permeability, the middle layer has enhanced resistance to water penetration, and the innermost layer has a high capacity for water retention. The integration of these functionally specialized layers provides a compelling evidence for explaining how these termites are able to adapt to the fluctuating environmental conditions characteristic of savanna ecosystems. Furthermore, this highlights the nest's buffering capability against environmental stressors. The complexity of this construction, marked by a level of self-organization rarely observed in the animal kingdom, underscores a significant instance of architectural ingenuity among non-human builders.

Utilization of IGN historical aerial photographs and Google earth for measuring changes in land use and evolution of termite lenticular mound abundance in paddy fields in Cambodia

AbstractThis study was conducted to investigate termite mounds' dynamics in paddy fields in Cambodia. Historical aerial images collected in the 50s by the French Institut Géographique National (IGN) and recent Google Earth (GE) were analysed to study land use changes and mound distribution in 30 plots. A significant decrease in the surface covered by scrublands and forests was measured (from 37% in 1953 to less than 2% in 2021). We observed that most mounds seen in the field in 2021 could also be seen in IGN and GE images (88.6%), indicating that mounds have a long lifespan but also that they can be built in less than 70 years. Mound density was neither influenced by the topography nor by the restructuring of the paddy field boundaries during the Khmer Rouge regime. However, areas that were more recently converted into paddy fields had more mounds compared to areas that were already paddy fields in 1953 (2.92 vs. 1.53 mounds ha−1, respectively). Therefore, deforestation and other environmental changes have turned mounds into remnants of the forests that had almost completely disappeared. This highlights the importance of protecting these specific environments in a changing world facing a major crisis of biodiversity loss.

A case-control study on risk factors for visceral leishmaniasis in West Pokot County, Kenya.

Visceral leishmaniasis (VL) is a severe parasitic disease transmitted by phlebotomine sandflies. VL is endemic in West Pokot County, Kenya, where effective strategies to interrupt transmission are impeded by the limited understanding of VL risk factors. Therefore, this case-control study aimed to explore environmental, behavioural and household determinants of VL in West Pokot. From November 2022 to January 2023, a structured questionnaire was administered to 36 symptomatic primary VL cases attending Kacheliba Sub-County Hospital in West Pokot and to 50 healthy controls from local villages. The VL status of all participants was confirmed using an rK39 rapid diagnostic test. Associations between questioned determinants and VL were investigated by means of age-corrected univariate logistic regression analysis. Significant associations were found between VL and housing characteristics, such as window presence and floor type. VL cases more frequently reported the presence of cattle, dogs and sheep in their house yards. VL was also associated with cutting down trees in the house yard and house proximity to several Acacia tree species. Furthermore, outdoor activities, including travelling outside the residence for more than 2 weeks, activities near termite mounds, and forest activities during the rainy season, increased the risk of VL. This work reports a number of previously undescribed risk factors for VL in the understudied West Pokot focus. The results suggest VL transmission occurs both peri-domestically at night and outdoors during the day, particularly when sandfly resting sites are disturbed. Our findings warrant further research into sandfly ecology and potential zoonotic parasite reservoirs in West Pokot.

Context‐dependent directional effects of termite mounds on soil nutrients, vegetation communities, and mammalian foraging

Context‐dependent directional effects of termite mounds on soil nutrients, vegetation communities, and mammalian foraging

Physico-mechanical Characterization of Stabilized Earth Blocks with Snail Shell and Termite Mound Powders as Pozzolanic Binders

The aim of this study is to reduce the reliance on cement in the construction of Stabilized Earth Blocks (SEBs) by assessing the addition of snail shell and termite mound powders as a partial substitute for cement. The focus of this study is on the valorization of local materials and animal waste in sustainable construction. Laterite, used as the base material, was stabilized by substituting 0 to 80% of the cement with snail shell and termite mound powders to create blocks that were tested for their mechanical strength and water absorption. The results show that the compressive strength of the blocks remains above the required threshold of 4 MPa up to a 50% substitution, with a downward trend at higher rates. The capillary water absorption of the stabilized earth blocks remains within the limits of blocks classified as low-absorption, with coefficients ranging from 0.58 kg/m²/min at a 50% substitution to 1.14 kg/m²/min at an 80% substitution. These findings suggest that a substitution up to 50% could represent an adequate balance between mechanical performance and environmental benefits, thus ensuring the required durability and mechanical strength. Although the research is limited to the study of these materials in their raw state, future work could explore the enhancement of the pozzolanic activity of snail shell and termite mound ash through treatments such as calcination to further strengthen the eco-efficiency of the process.

Bonobo geophagy at Wamba.

Geophagy, the deliberate consumption of earth materials, is widely observed in animals. While anecdotal evidence exists of bonobos (Pan paniscus) consuming soil from Cubitermes termite mounds, the functions of their geophagic behavior remains unexplored. This study aims to examine a preliminary hypothesis that termite mound geophagy of free-ranging bonobos at Wamba are helpful for iron supplementation. Here, we tested the following three predictions: (1) the soil of Cubitermes termite mounds at Wamba would have high iron content, (2) bonobos would engage in termite mound geophagy regularly across all seasons, and (3) termite mound soil would be more often consumed by (a) females than males, (b) pregnant than non-pregnant females, and (c) adolescents than adults. As predicted, soil samples collected from the pointy protrusions on the caps of the mushroom-shaped mounds, the part typically consumed by bonobos, had a much higher iron content than other food items for them. In addition, geophagic behavior was noted on 48 out of 116 days (41.3%) with full-day focal animal sampling, and was observed throughout the entire study duration without any bias in frequency toward a certain period. However, contrary to our prediction, there was no significant variation in the frequency of geophagic behavior by sex nor by pregnancy status, although it occurred more frequently among adolescents than adults. Our findings partially support the Iron Supplementation Hypothesis, suggesting that Cubitermes termite mound soils could offer a readily accessible source of iron for bonobos. However, we cannot draw definitive conclusions on the function of their geophagic behavior from our findings without in vitro studies examining whether the ingested iron is bioavailable and whether the soil does not have properties inhibiting iron absorption. Nonetheless, this study is a first step to explore the health implications of geophagy in bonobos, extending our knowledge of this behavior in primates.

World’s oldest inhabited termite mounds found in South Africa

World’s oldest inhabited termite mounds found in South Africa

Ecological correlates of chimpanzee termite fishing behavior in Mbam & Djerem National Park, Cameroon.

Chimpanzee insectivory is seasonally variable, with pronounced peaks or set seasonal periods of consumption observed in most chimpanzee communities. This variation is interesting given that chimpanzees invest considerable effort into complex tool-using behaviors to acquire insect prey. Evidence suggests this seasonal variation is related to insect behavior, but few studies have been done to empirically examine this relationship. In this study, we assessed whether a seasonal pattern of termite fishing by Nigeria-Cameroon chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes ellioti) in Mbam & Djerem National Park, Cameroon was driven by termite behavior. We measured termite presence and termite foraging activity monthly at seven termite mounds near Ganga Research Station from April 2022 to April 2023. Macroscopic fecal analysis and camera traps placed at each mound demonstrated termite fishing in this community occurred from March to June, with a rare smaller period of termite fishing in October 2021. Average monthly rainfall, average monthly temperature, and average monthly fruit availability were used to examine potential environmental factors that could impact termite fishing seasonality. Termite presence was significantly different between months with and without chimpanzee termite fishing (t-test, -6.569, p < .001). Termite presence was also significantly associated with average monthly rainfall (ANOVA, F = 13.9, p = .002, R 2 = .775). Termites in this region appear to respond to the transition from dry to wet seasons by moving closer to the soil surface. This corresponds with greater chimpanzee termite fishing, suggesting that termite accessibility may be driving seasonal variation in this behavior.

Termite mound soil based potting media: a better approach towards sustainable agriculture.

Termite mound soils are known to possess unique physico-chemical and biochemical properties, making them highly fertile. Considering their rich nutrient content, the objective of the current experiment is to assess the physico-chemical properties and enzyme activities of termite mound based potting media and evaluate theirperformance for further exploration in floriculture. Potting media consisting of termite mound soil (TS) of a subterranean termite, Odontotermes obesus were prepared in 7 different combinations with garden soil (GS), sand (S) and farmyard manure (FYM) and a control (without termite mound soil), i.e., T1 (TS, GS, S, FYM (v:v:v:v /1:2:1:1)), T2 (TS, GS, S, FYM (v:v:v:v / 2:1:1:1)), T3 (TS, S, FYM (v:v:v / 2:1:1)), T4 (TS, GS, FYM (v:v:v / 2:1:1)), T5 (TS, GS, S (v:v:v / 2:1:1)), T6 (TS, S, FYM (v:v:v / 3:1:1)), T7 (TS, S, FYM (v:v:v / 1:1:2)) and control (GS, S, FYM (v:v:v / 2:1:1)). The samples were then analysed in laboratory. Experimental analysis on physico-chemical and biological parameters revealed superiority of T7 (TS, S, FYM (v:v:v / 1:1:2)) in terms of pH (7.15), organic carbon (2.13%), available nitrogen (526.02 kg ha-1), available phosphorus (56.60 kg ha-1), available potassium (708.19 kg ha-1), dehydrogenase activity (18.21 μg TTF g-1 soil day-1), Phosphomonoesterase (PME) activity (46.68 54 μg p-nitrophenol/gsoil/h) and urease activity (3.39 μg NH4-N g-1 soil h-1). Whereas T4 (TS, GS, FYM (v:v:v /2:1:1)) registered superiority in terms of PME activity (50.54 μg p-nitrophenol/gsoil/h), Fluorescein diacetate (FDA) activity (11.01 μgfluorescein/gsoil/h) and Soil Microbial Biomass Carbon (SMBC) (262.25 μg/g). Subsequent to the laboratory analysis, two best potting mixtures (T7 & T4) were selected and their performance was assessed by growing a test crop, Tagetes erecta cv. Inca Orange. Considering the growth parameters, the potting media: T7 was found to be significantly superior in terms of plant spread (39.64 cm), leaf area index (4.07), fresh weight (37.72 g), yield (317.81 g/plant), and diameter (9.38 cm) of flower over T4 & control. The Benefit:Cost (B:C) ratio meaning the ratio of net returns to total cost of cultivation was determined. The B:C ratio of raising marigold flower as potted plant in T7 was 1.10 whereas the B:C ratio of the potting mixture of T7 was 2.52. This shows that T7 potting media is also economically viable choice for commercial purposes.

Biomimicry in construction: Glycoprotein-stabilised adobe bricks for enhanced compressive strength inspired by termites mounds

Earth is a green building material with very low embodied energy and almost zero greenhouse gas emissions. However, it lacks strength and durability when used without stabilisation. By incorporating responsibly sourced stabilisers, it is possible to enhance the strength of this material. In this study, adobe bricks stabilised using bio-inspired stabilisers were investigated. This research was inspired by the high strength and durability of termite mounds, exploring the stabiliser behind such robust natural constructions. Termites build their mounds by incorporating a glycoprotein from their saliva to cement the sub-soil particles together. Biomimicry has been employed to investigate the potential use of the termites' construction stabiliser in adobe bricks. Three glycoproteins from meat and fish industry waste were identified as potential stabilisers in adobe bricks. Bovine serum albumin (BSA) from cows' blood, mucin from the porcine stomach, and gelatine from cold-water fish skin were the three stabilisers used in this study. Two soils were used to prepare adobe bricks for testing. The primary soil used in this study was from Devon in the United Kingdom (UK). The second soil was obtained from the Mayo neighbourhood in Khartoum, Sudan, and used only in key tests. Adobe bricks were made and stabilised with different concentrations of these bio-inspired stabilisers. Controlled unstabilised adobe bricks were used for comparison. The bricks were tested for their unconfined compressive strength. The main conclusion of this study is that BSA has proven its potential to be used as a stabiliser in earth construction. Using 0.5 % BSA resulted in a 17 % and 41 % increase in the unconfined compressive strength of the British and Sudanese adobe bricks, respectively. In addition, using 5 % BSA resulted in a 203 % and 97 % increase in the unconfined compressive strength of the British and Sudanese adobe bricks, respectively. The compressive strength of BSA-stabilised adobe bricks is higher than that of earth bricks stabilised using 5 % cement and 5 % lime reported in the literature. Furthermore, the compressive strength of the 5 % BSA-stabilised adobe bricks is higher than the lower recommended compressive strength for the hollow concrete blocks in the UK. Hence, these BSA-stabilised adobe bricks could substitute hollow concrete blocks to construct internal walls. The other stabilisers tested did not significantly improve the unconfined compressive strength of the adobe bricks. The study underscores the value of biomimicry and proposes glycoproteins as viable natural stabilisers in earth construction, with further recommendations for in-depth research to optimise application methods and formulations.

Potentiality of some lateritic clayey material from Meiganga as raw material in fired bricks making

The Meiganga lateritic clays and termite mounds were characterized for their use as construction materials. The six collected samples were subjected to mineralogical, geochemical, and physico-mechanical tests. Quartz, kaolinite, hematite, goethite, gibbsite, muscovite, and anatase are the main minerals in raw materials, while after firing at 1050 °C, mullite is formed. The SiO2/Al2O3 ratio greater than 1 indicates a high SiO2 content, which is consistent with the presence of quartz as an associate mineral to kaolinite. Considering linear shrinkage globally less than 5 % and flexural and compressive strengths greater than 2 and 7 MPa, respectively, four clay materials are suitable to produce bricks at all the studied temperatures, whereas two others only after firing at 1050 °C. As the studied characteristics do not depend on the nature of the material, exploring termite mound material in the Meiganga area would provide additional good-quality material to make up for any deficit that might arise.

The Impact of Termite Activity on the Availability of Soil Micronutrients in Tropical Regions

This research aimed to assess the impact of termite actions on the presence of micronutrients in tropical soil. A total of five combined soil samples were gathered from various termite mounds at a depth of 0-20 cm within the premises of Kano University of Science and Technology. The samples were examined for micronutrient levels using Microplasma Atomic Emission Spectroscopy (MP-AES). The findings revealed that the pH of the mounds' soil varied from 6.63 to 8.51, averaging at 7.46, categorizing the soil as slightly acidic to moderately alkaline. The zinc levels ranged from 0.68 mg/kg to 5.38 mg/kg, with an average of 2.52 mg/kg, indicating a high zinc concentration in the soil. Iron content showed a range of 43.72 mg/kg to 121.87 mg/kg, averaging at 78.05 mg/kg, placing it in the "high" range. Manganese levels varied from 7.70 mg/kg to 88.89 mg/kg, with an average of 37.22 mg/kg, also highlighting a substantial amount. Copper concentrations in the mounds ranged from 5.52 mg/kg to 53.33 mg/kg, with an average of 29.86 mg/kg. These outcomes illustrate that termite operations impact the presence of micronutrients, notwithstanding the low organic carbon content and cation exchange capacity of the soils. As a result, it is suggested that combining termite mound soil with organic manure or fertilizers could enhance soil productivity.

The termitaria terminator: Can Actinobolus beetles affect the relationships between termitaria and related fauna in the Brazilian Cerrado?

AbstractTermites are key components of tropical ecosystems, particularly in the Cerrado biome, where they dominate animal biomass and play crucial roles in nutrient cycling and soil formation. Their abundance and nutritional value make them primary food sources for various Cerrado animals, influencing predator diversity and several ecological interactions. Additionally, termite mounds serve as essential shelters for a wide range of fauna, aiding in thermoregulation and providing refuge from harsh environmental conditions, including wildfires. In this scenario, termitaria survival, diversity, and availability have several effects on the Cerrado fauna ecology. We present novel insights into the interaction between Actinobolus beetles and epigeous termite mounds in the Cerrado. Our field observations revealed Actinobolus beetles utilizing termite mounds for feeding and reproduction in several localities of Cerrado. These beetles access the inner portion of the termitaria, where the colony nest is located and protected by the termitaria's harder external layer and their larvae consume the termite nest structure. Actinobolus attack leads to partial or complete destruction of the colony and the creation of large hollows inside the mounds, causing deep changes in its structure. Despite the defensive mechanisms of termites, Actinobolus larvae thrive within the nest and likely ingest termites’ eggs, nymphae and adults. Furthermore, we found that the Actinobolus capsule are made of faecal pellets, instead of termitaria debris. We suggest that the interaction between Actinobolus beetles and epigeous termitaria impacts the role of termitaria in providing microclimate regulation, food and shelter for Cerrado fauna, likely having poorly understood effects on the conservation and management of Cerrado ecosystems.

Soil properties of thickets and adjacent land use types in coastal savanna landscape of Ghana

Thicket vegetation may be of great importance in soil carbon (C) storage and in provision of other ecosystem services such as soil erosion control and biodiversity conservation. However, it is less studied in tropical ecosystems due to limited understanding of its ecological importance. This study reports soil C pools and nutrient concentrations [nitrogen (N), available phosphorus (P), exchangeable calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg) and potassium (K)] of unique thicket formations on Vertisol in comparison with adjacent land use types viz. rangeland, dry forest, and farmland at Kpong in the coastal Accra plains of Ghana. We also examined soil particle and nutrient distributions of termitarium associated with the thicket clumps on the Vertisols. Soils were sampled from each land use at 0–30 cm depth in addition to deep coring up to 100 cm. In the rangeland, forest and farmland, we demarcated 1600 m2 area each and established 4 subplots measuring 20 × 20 m (400 m2) and selected for the thicket vegetation, 4 thicket clumps each of approximately 400 m2 for soil sampling. The thicket clumps had greater soil total N, available P, exchangeable Ca and Mg concentrations than the rangeland and farmland but the levels in the thicket were similar (p > 0.05) to that of the adjacent dry forest. Soil C stock varied from 59 Mg ha−1 in the rangeland to 111 Mg ha−1 in the thicket clumps. The C stored in the silt + clay (S + C) fraction did not differ significantly (p > 0.05) in both the thicket and the dry forest, indicating similar C sequestration abilities. The S + C fraction contributed 89.6, 82.8, 81.3, and 73.7% to total soil organic C content in the rangeland, farmland, dry forest, and thickets, respectively. Soils of the termite mounds in the thickets were more clayey (ca. 38–41% clay) than the surrounding thicket soils (ca. 32% clay). We conclude that Vertisols in thicket areas store soil C and nutrients comparably as tropical dry forest, underscoring their ecological importance and the need for their conservation to enhance soil quality in the Anthropocene.

Adsorptive Performance of Termite Mound Clay for Removal of Eosin Yellow Dye from Aqueous Solution

Adsorptive Performance of Termite Mound Clay for Removal of Eosin Yellow Dye from Aqueous Solution

A checklist of wild mushroom diversity in Mizoram, India

The northeastern part of India is one of the biodiversity hotspots having a wide variety of flora and fauna. High humidity during monsoon provides ideal conditions for the growth of diverse group of macrofungi. Mizoram is one of the northeastern states of India which has a large number of edible and non-edible mushroom species. Wild edible mushrooms are an important food source for rural communities of Mizoram and provide additional income to the households if sold in regional markets. The key objective of this study was to explore the macrofungal diversity, and its richness in Mizoram with the aim of preparing a checklist along with the present geographical distribution of the important wild edible mushrooms. The macrofungal survey was undertaken during 2017–2020 in 24 different sites in Mizoram. A total of 152 (54 edible and 98 inedible) mushroom species have been documented belonging to 85 genera, 54 families, and 19 orders. Habitat-wise distribution of macrofungi revealed that maximum species were found on soil (61), followed by associated with roots (36), dead wood (30), living trees (22), and associated with termite mound (three). From a morphological point of view, the wild mushrooms have been divided into gilled fungi (95), boletes (18), polypores (17), coral fungi (10), chanterelles (3), puffballs (3), jelly fungi (3), stinkhorns (2), and cup fungi (1). This documentation of wild mushrooms of Mizoram will be a reference database for future.