Motor Processes Research Articles

Effect of coaching the sit-to-stand motion and attentional focus.

[Purpose] The present study investigated whether (1) "standing up while bowing" is effective for promoting the sit-to-stand (STS) motion and (2) whether this coaching promotes internal focus. [Participants and Methods] The participants included 17 healthy adults who performed the 30-s chair stand test with two sets of verbal instructions. The verbal instructions were as follows: "Please stand up as many times as possible for 30 s" (control condition) and "Please stand up while bowing as many times as possible for 30 s" (bowing condition). The participants performed the tests successively under the two conditions. In the 30-s chair stand test, a three-axis accelerometer was attached to the participants and the sagittal STS motion was filmed using a video camera. After the 30-s chair stand test, we used the modified Movement-Specific Reinvestment Scale (MSRS) to evaluate attentional focus. Differences in the measurements were analyzed using the Wilcoxon signed-rank test or paired t-test for each condition. [Results] Statistical analysis revealed significant differences in the CS-30 count, time from sitting to standing, time from sitting to lift-off, time from lift-off to standing, and the trunk tilt angle on lift-off. Regarding the questionnaire, Statistical analysis revealed significant differences in the MSRS and "conscious motor processing". [Conclusion] These results suggest that "standing up while bowing" has limited effectiveness in promoting the STS motion because the coaching promotes internal focus.

Prototype Design of XR technology for psychomotor skill learning (PSL): Layering content focus and feedback to prompt deep PSL

Contemporary research in the realm of psychomotor skill learning uses sophisticated features of Extended reality (XR) technologies (VR/AR/MR), with promising implications towards accelerating learning process and enhancing learning outcome. A functional prototype is presented that replicates the potential representation of underlying PSL mechanism including both mental processing and motor movements. Rather than focusing on immersing learners in the virtual environment, this prototype aims at reversely immersing them in the intricate mechanisms of psychomotor skill to achieve deeper levels of PSL. The proposed prototype challenges the traditional emphasis on observable behaviors, informing the significant role of mental processing. The integration of mental and motor processing enables learners to completely immerse themselves in the psychomotor task leading to more effective and efficient PSL. Learners engaged in psychomotor tasks use external sensory stimuli to promptly refine their body movements for optimal performance. This paper contributes to PSL discourse offering practical insights and implications.

Neural correlates of motor imagery and execution in real-world dynamic behavior: evidence for similarities and differences.

A large body of evidence shows that motor imagery and action execution behaviors result from overlapping neural substrates, even in the absence of overt movement during motor imagery. To date it is unclear how neural activations in motor imagery and execution compare for naturalistic whole-body movements, such as walking. Neuroimaging studies have not directly compared imagery and execution during dynamic walking movements. Here we recorded brain activation with mobile EEG during walking compared to during imagery of walking, with mental counting as a control condition. We asked 24 healthy participants to either walk six steps on a path, imagine taking six steps, or mentally count from one to six. We found beta and alpha power modulation during motor imagery resembling action execution patterns; a correspondence not found performing the control task of mental counting. Neural overlap occurred early in the execution and imagery walking actions, suggesting activation of shared action representations. Remarkably, a distinctive walking-related beta rebound occurred both during action execution and imagery at the end of the action suggesting that, like actual walking, motor imagery involves resetting or inhibition of motor processes. However, we also found that motor imagery elicits a distinct pattern of more distributed beta activity, especially at the beginning of the task. These results indicate that motor imagery and execution of naturalistic walking involve shared motor-cognitive activations, but that motor imagery requires additional cortical resources.

Musculoskeletal injury or Sports-Related Concussion (SRC) in a season of rugby union does not affect performance on concussion battery testing in university-aged student-athletes

BackgroundSub-concussive and concussive impacts sustained during contact sports such as rugby may affect neurocognitive performance, vestibular-ocular-motor function, symptom burden and academic ability. MethodStudent-athletes (n = 146) participating in rugby union British Universities or domestic competitions were assessed on the Immediate Post-Concussion and Cognitive Test, Post-Concussion Symptom Scale, vestibular-oculo-motor screening tool and revised perceived academic impact tool. Individual change from pre-season (July–September 2021) to 2-weeks following last exposure to contact (April–July 2022) was analysed. ResultsSymptom burden significantly worsened (p=0.016) over the season. Significant improvements on verbal memory (p=0.016), visual memory (p=0.008) and motor processing speed (p=0.001) suggest a possible learning effect. Surprisingly, the number of days lost to concussion significantly and positively affected performance on verbal memory (p = 0.018) and reaction time (p = 0.027). Previous concussive events significantly predicted a worsening in symptom burden (p < 0.028), as did in-season concussive events, predicting improved verbal memory (p = 0.033) and symptom burden change (p = 0.047). Baseline performance significantly affected change on several neurocognitive tests, with low-scorers showing more improvement over the season. ConclusionParticipation in rugby union was not associated with deleterious effects on brain function. Previous concussive events and in-season factors, possibly related to learning effects, may explain improvement in cognitive function across the season.

Self-initiation enhances perceptual processing of auditory stimuli in an online study.

Understanding how the brain incorporates sensory and motor information will enable better theory building on human perception and behavior. In this study, we aimed to estimate the influence of predictive mechanisms on the magnitude and variability of sensory attenuation in two online samples. After the presentation of a visual cue stimulus, participants (Experiment 1: N = 224, Experiment 2: N = 84) compared the loudness of two consecutive tones in a two-alternative forced-choice task. In Experiment 1, the first tone was either self-initiated or not; in Experiment 2, the second tone was either self-initiated or not (active and passive condition, respectively). We further manipulated identity prediction (i.e., the congruence of pre-learned cue-sound combinations; congruent vs. incongruent), and the duration of the onset delay (to account for effects of attentional differences between the passive and active condition, 50 ms vs. 0 ms). We critically discuss our results within the framework of both classical (i.e., motor-based forward models) and contemporary approaches (i.e., predictive processing framework). Contrary to our preregistered hypothesis, we observed enhanced perceptual processing, instead of attenuation, for self-initiated auditory sensory input. Further, our results reveal an effect of fixed sound delays on the processing of motor and non-motor-based predictive information, and may point to according shifts in attention, leading to a perceptual bias. These results might best be captured by a hybrid explanatory model, combining predictions based on self-initiated motor action with a global predictive mechanism.

Design and Optimization of Flux Switching Motor for Electric Vehicle

This paper proposes the design process of an electric motor for electric vehicle (EV). In this process, considering the technical specifications of an average car, the features of the electric motor are calculated. Then, by calculating the main parameters of the electric motor and choosing some dimensions, the initial values for the optimization of the motor are provided. Optimization is done with the help of genetic algorithm to reduce the torque ripple and increase the torque density of the motor. To reduce the torque ripple, the combination of three torque reduction methods is applied to the rotor. To reduce the iron loss of the machine, simulation is done using oriented ferromagnetic laminations. Finally, the optimization results and its effect on the motor parameters are presented along with the efficiency and losses map of the motor.

Multisensory integration augmenting motor processes among older adults.

Multisensory integration enhances sensory processing in older adults. This study aimed to investigate how the sensory enhancement would modulate the motor related process in healthy older adults. Thirty-one older adults (12 males, mean age 67.7 years) and 29 younger adults as controls (16 males, mean age 24.9 years) participated in this study. Participants were asked to discriminate spatial information embedded in the unisensory (visual or audial) and multisensory (audiovisual) conditions. The responses made by the movements of the left and right wrists corresponding to the spatial information were registered with specially designed pads. The electroencephalogram (EEG) marker was the event-related super-additive P2 in the frontal-central region, the stimulus-locked lateralized readiness potentials (s-LRP) and response-locked lateralized readiness potentials (r-LRP). Older participants showed significantly faster and more accurate responses than controls in the multisensory condition than in the unisensory conditions. Both groups had significantly less negative-going s-LRP amplitudes elicited at the central sites in the between-condition contrasts. However, only the older group showed significantly less negative-going, centrally distributed r-LRP amplitudes. More importantly, only the r-LRP amplitude in the audiovisual condition significantly predicted behavioral performance. Audiovisual integration enhances reaction time, which associates with modulated motor related processes among the older participants. The super-additive effects modulate both the motor preparation and generation processes. Interestingly, only the modulated motor generation process contributes to faster reaction time. As such effects were observed in older but not younger participants, multisensory integration likely augments motor functions in those with age-related neurodegeneration.

SEAM: An integrated activation-coupled model of sentence processing and eye movements in reading

Models of eye-movement control during reading, developed largely within psychology, usually focus on visual, attentional, lexical, and motor processes but neglect post-lexical language processing; by contrast, models of sentence comprehension processes, developed largely within psycholinguistics, generally focus only on post-lexical language processes. We present a model that combines these two research threads, by integrating eye-movement control and sentence processing. Developing such an integrated model is extremely challenging and computationally demanding, but such an integration is an important step toward complete mathematical models of natural language comprehension in reading. We combine the SWIFT model of eye-movement control (Seelig et al., 2023) with key components of the Lewis and Vasishth sentence processing model (Lewis and Vasishth, 2005). This integration becomes possible, for the first time, due in part to recent advances in successful parameter identification in dynamical models, which allows us to investigate profile log-likelihoods for individual model parameters. We present a fully implemented proof-of-concept model demonstrating how such an integrated model can be achieved; our approach includes Bayesian model inference with Markov Chain Monte Carlo (MCMC) sampling as a key computational tool. The integrated Sentence-Processing and Eye-Movement Activation-Coupled Model (SEAM) can successfully reproduce eye movement patterns that arise due to similarity-based interference in reading. To our knowledge, this is the first-ever integration of a complete process model of eye-movement control with linguistic dependency completion processes in sentence comprehension. In future work, this proof of concept model will need to be evaluated using a comprehensive set of benchmark data.

Cognitive Foundations of Ethical Literary Studies

In the 1980s and 1990s, an ethical turn began to take place in literary studies and in the humanities in general, leading to an increased interest in exploring the relationship between literature and ethics. The field that deals with this topic is now called ethical literary studies or ethical criticism. One of the less explored areas of ethical literary studies is the relationship between ethics and cognitive aspects of reading. In this article, I therefore analyse the neurobiological foundations of literary reading. I consider reading as a technology consisting of various embodied mental, emotional, motor, sensory, memory and other cognitive processes. The temporal and spatial dimension of the processes, which I also call “openness”, is particularly important. The latter conditions the diversity of reading on an experiential level and, finally, the possibilities of the relationship between literature and ethics, namely in relation to literary characters, narratives, implicit and real authors and readers.

The role of the primary sensorimotor system in generalized epilepsy: Evidence from the cerebello-cerebral functional integration.

The interaction between cerebellum and cerebrum participates widely in function from motor processing to high-level cognitive and affective processing. Because of the motor symptom, idiopathic generalized epilepsy (IGE) patients with generalized tonic-clonic seizure have been recognized to associate with motor abnormalities, but the functional interaction in the cerebello-cerebral circuit is still poorly understood. Resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging data were collected for 101 IGE patients and 106 healthy controls. The voxel-based functional connectivity (FC) between cerebral cortex and the cerebellum was contacted. The functional gradient and independent components analysis were applied to evaluate cerebello-cerebral functional integration on the voxel-based FC. Cerebellar motor components were further linked to cerebellar gradient. Results revealed cerebellar motor functional modules were closely related to cerebral motor components. The altered mapping of cerebral motor components to cerebellum was observed in motor module in patients with IGE. In addition, patients also showed compression in cerebello-cerebral functional gradient between motor and cognition modules. Interestingly, the contribution of the motor components to the gradient was unbalanced between bilateral primary sensorimotor components in patients: the increase was observed in cerebellar cognitive module for the dominant hemisphere primary sensorimotor, but the decrease was found in the cerebellar cognitive module for the nondominant hemisphere primary sensorimotor. The present findings suggest that the cerebral primary motor system affects the hierarchical architecture of cerebellum, and substantially contributes to the functional integration evidence to understand the motor functional abnormality in IGE patients.

Altered intrinsic brain activity in patients with neuropathic pain after brachial plexus avulsion

ObjectiveThis study aimed to investigate brain activity changes in patients suffering from neuropathic pain (NP) following brachial plexus avulsion (BPA). MethodsFifteen patients with NP following BPA and eight healthy participants (HP) were recruited for this study. All participants underwent examination using resting-state functional MRI. The amplitude of low-frequency fluctuation (ALFF) and regional homogeneity (ReHo) were calculated and compared between the BPA group, left-BPA subgroup, right-BPA subgroup, and the HP group using independent samples t-tests. ResultsIn the BPA group, there were notable increases in ALFF/ReHo observed in the left rolandic operculum, insula, and supramarginal gyrus, while decreases were observed in the left paracentral lobule, fusiform gyrus, calcarine fissure and surrounding cortex, lingual gyrus, precuneus, as well as the bilateral anterior/median cingulate and paracingulate gyri, supplementary motor area, and cerebellum. In the left-BPA subgroup, elevated ALFF/ReHo levels were identified in the left middle/inferior frontal gyri, rolandic operculum, and supramarginal gyrus, with corresponding decreases in the left calcarine fissure and surrounding cortex, inferior occipital gyrus, fusiform gyrus, lingual gyrus, as well as the bilateral anterior/median cingulate and paracingulate gyri, postcentral gyri, supplementary motor area, paracentral lobules, and cerebellum. The right-BPA subgroup displayed increased ALFF/ReHo in the left frontal lobe, rolandic operculum, insula, fusiform gyrus, and lingual gyrus, as well as the right cerebellum. Conversely, decreases in ALFF/ReHo were observed in the bilateral anterior/median cingulate and paracingulate gyri, calcarine fissure and surrounding cortex, cuneus, and occipital lobes. ConclusionsThe NP after BPA caused spontaneous activity changes in brain regions associated with linguistic, visual, somatosensory, and motor coordination and processing function. The majority of these abnormal areas were situated in the left cerebral hemisphere, while the effect of cingulate gyri and cerebellum seemed to be bilateral.

Invited Session V: Binocular vision and interactions: Binocular vision and the control of foot placement during walking in natural terrain.

Coordination between visual and motor processes during walking is critical for the selection of stable footholds when walking in rough terrains. In our work we collect eye movements and body motion while people walk over complex natural terrains. We found that gaze strategy was highly sensitive to the complexity of the terrain, with more fixations dedicated to foothold selection as the terrain became more difficult. Disrupting the binocular vision led to a tendency to focus on closer footholds, suggesting that this loss of information places more pressure on the visuomotor control process. Furthermore we find a relationship between a person's stereoacuity and their gaze strategy. These findings help us understand how vision loss can impact everyday tasks like walking.

INFLUENCE ON WRITING OF UNUSUAL CONDITION OF PERSON CAUSED BY MENTAL DISORDERS

The article is devoted to the study of writing disorders and the diagnosis of the unusual state of the writer caused by mental disorders. The authors found that modern forensic sources pay little attention to this aspect of the problem being highlighted. However, the scientific approach to its solution largely depends on a comprehensive analysis of mental disorders, which should be established by the methodology of forensic handwriting. It was determined that writing is a complex mental activity of a person, which includes both cognitive, speech, motor, and emotional processes. Differentiating the states of the executor of the manuscript by handwriting is a difficult task, especially in connection with some similarity of the reflection in the manuscripts directly of the reasons that change the skill of writing, for example, such as alcohol intoxication, a state of great excitement, stress, etc. It was stated that the objects of handwriting expertise are handwritten texts, short notes, signatures, and even digital markings. Depending on the specific circumstances of the case under consideration by the forensic handwriting examination, the fact of the writing of the text by a specific person can be established or refuted, the methods of execution of certain manuscripts, the state of a particular person at the time of execution of the manuscript are established. The range of tasks of forensic expertise regarding the writing of persons who are in a psychopathological state are similar, but largely different, to the medical diagnostic tasks of establishing mental disorders of a person listed in the international classification of diseases. It is indicated that it is appropriate to refer to the information of psychiatry in order to understand the general characteristics of the psychopathological state of a person, to form a clear idea about its varieties and their characteristic signs - symptoms and syndromes. The article examines the development and current state of research on writing disorders in mental disorders, reveals the psychophysiological foundations of the writing mechanism and its psychological features. Examples of expert research practice and experimental-psychological research of writing disorders in patients with various mental disorders are also given.

Cortical thickness is influenced by bilingual language dominance in typical and pathological cognitive aging

AbstractBackgroundPrior research in clinical and non‐clinical populations demonstrates that speaking more than one language can modify gray matter structure (e.g., DeLuca et al., 2020; Torres et al., 2022). However, existing work has largely classified bilingualism dichotomously, diminishing the ability to establish associations between bilingual factors (e.g., language dominance) and regional cortical thickness (CT).MethodWe examined cross‐sectional differences in CT across a large, ethnically diverse sample of bilingual and monolingual older adults from the Health and Aging Brain Study: Health Disparities cohort (n = 1,605; O’Bryant et al., 2021). Differences in CT between language dominance subgroups across three levels of diagnostic phase (cognitively unimpaired, mild cognitive impairment (MCI), and Alzheimer’s dementia (AD)) were evaluated using linear‐mixed effects models. Participants were characterized as English‐dominant or Spanish‐dominant speakers according to responses on language interview questions and the Short Acculturation Scale for Hispanics (Marin et al., 1987).ResultAssociations between CT and language dominance differed across diagnostic phase (Tukey‐adjusted ps &lt;0.05). In the cognitively unimpaired group, English‐dominant speakers exhibited greater CT than Spanish‐dominant speakers in in regions‐of‐interest (ROIs) related to auditory processing (Heschl’s gyrus), semantic processing (temporal pole), and executive functioning (frontal pole). Spanish‐dominant speakers exhibited greater CT than English‐dominant speakers in two ROIs supporting motor (precentral) and spatial processing (entorhinal). These CT differences were attenuated in the MCI phase. Here, English‐dominant speakers exhibited greater CT than Spanish‐dominant patients in the frontal pole (executive processing). Spanish‐dominant patients did not exhibit greater CT than English‐dominant patients. Notably, this pattern of group differences was reversed in AD patients. Here, Spanish‐dominant patients exhibited greater CT than English‐dominant patients in ROIs in Alzheimer’s disease‐related regions (parahippocampal and entorhinal).ConclusionOur results indicate associations between language dominance and regional CT, with distinct patterns by diagnostic phase. Whereas English‐dominant bilinguals demonstrated greater regional CT relative to Spanish‐dominant bilinguals in the cognitively unimpaired and MCI phase, Spanish‐dominant bilinguals had greater CT in disease‐related regions in the AD phase. The presence of greater CT in Spanish‐dominant bilingual AD patients is suggestive of resistance to pathological progression. Future research examining longitudinal patterns of neural decline in larger samples is needed.

Effects of non-invasive brain stimulation over supplementary motor area in people with Parkinson’s disease: a protocol for a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials

IntroductionIndividuals with Parkinson’s disease (PD) often experience initial hesitation, slowness of movements, decreased balance and impaired standing ability, which can significantly impact their independence. Transcranial magnetic stimulation and transcranial direct...

Motor Processing in Children With Cochlear Implants as Assessed by Functional Near-Infrared Spectroscopy.

Auditory-motor and visual-motor networks are often coupled in daily activities, such as when listening to music and dancing; but these networks are known to be highly malleable as a function of sensory input. Thus, congenital deafness may modify neural activities within the connections between the motor, auditory, and visual cortices. Here, we investigated whether the cortical responses of children with cochlear implants (CI) to a simple and repetitive motor task would differ from that of children with typical hearing (TH) and we sought to understand whether this response related to their language development. Participants were 75 school-aged children, including 50 with CI (with varying language abilities) and 25 controls with TH. We used functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) to record cortical responses over the whole brain, as children squeezed the back triggers of a joystick that vibrated or not with the squeeze. Motor cortex activity was reflected by an increase in oxygenated hemoglobin concentration (HbO) and a decrease in deoxygenated hemoglobin concentration (HbR) in all children, irrespective of their hearing status. Unexpectedly, the visual cortex (supposedly an irrelevant region) was deactivated in this task, particularly for children with CI who had good language skills when compared to those with CI who had language delays. Presence or absence of vibrotactile feedback made no difference in cortical activation. These findings support the potential of fNIRS to examine cognitive functions related to language in children with CI.

Distinct Contributions of the Cerebellum and Basal Ganglia to Arithmetic Procedures.

Humans exhibit complex mathematical skills attributed to the exceptional enlargement of neocortical regions throughout evolution. In the current work, we initiated a novel exploration of the ancient subcortical neural network essential for mathematical cognition. Using a neuropsychological approach, we report that degeneration of two subcortical structures, the cerebellum and basal ganglia, impairs performance in symbolic arithmetic. We identify distinct computational impairments in male and female participants with cerebellar degeneration (CD) or Parkinson's disease (PD). The CD group exhibited a disproportionate cost when the arithmetic sum increased, suggesting that the cerebellum is critical for iterative procedures required for calculations. The PD group showed a disproportionate cost for equations with increasing addends, suggesting that the basal ganglia are critical for chaining multiple operations. In Experiment 2, the two patient groups exhibited intact practice gains for repeated equations at odds with an alternative hypothesis that these impairments were related to memory retrieval. Notably, we discuss how the counting and chaining operations relate to cerebellar and basal ganglia function in other task domains (e.g., motor processes). Overall, we provide a novel perspective on how the cerebellum and basal ganglia contribute to symbolic arithmetic. Our studies demonstrate the constraints on the computational role of two subcortical regions in higher cognition.

Neural oscillatory activity and connectivity in children who stutter during a non-speech motor task

BackgroundNeural motor control rests on the dynamic interaction of cortical and subcortical regions, which is reflected in the modulation of oscillatory activity and connectivity in multiple frequency bands. Motor control is thought to be compromised in developmental stuttering, particularly involving circuits in the left hemisphere that support speech, movement initiation, and timing control. However, to date, evidence comes from adult studies, with a limited understanding of motor processes in childhood, closer to the onset of stuttering.MethodsWe investigated the neural control of movement initiation in children who stutter and children who do not stutter by evaluating transient changes in EEG oscillatory activity (power, phase locking to button press) and connectivity (phase synchronization) during a simple button press motor task. We compared temporal changes in these oscillatory dynamics between the left and right hemispheres and between children who stutter and children who do not stutter, using mixed-model analysis of variance.ResultsWe found reduced modulation of left hemisphere oscillatory power, phase locking to button press and phase connectivity in children who stutter compared to children who do not stutter, consistent with previous findings of dysfunction within the left sensorimotor circuits. Interhemispheric connectivity was weaker at lower frequencies (delta, theta) and stronger in the beta band in children who stutter than in children who do not stutter.ConclusionsTaken together, these findings indicate weaker engagement of the contralateral left motor network in children who stutter even during low-demand non-speech tasks, and suggest that the right hemisphere might be recruited to support sensorimotor processing in childhood stuttering. Differences in oscillatory dynamics occurred despite comparable task performance between groups, indicating that an altered balance of cortical activity might be a core aspect of stuttering, observable during normal motor behavior.

Age-Dependent Modulation of Layer V Pyramidal Neuron Excitability in the Mouse Primary Motor Cortex by D1 Receptor Agonists and Antagonists

The primary motor cortex (M1) receives dopaminergic (DAergic) projections from the midbrain which play a key role in modulating motor and cognitive processes, such as motor skill learning. However, little is known at the level of individual neurons about how dopamine (DA) and its receptors modulate the intrinsic properties of the different neuronal subpopulations in M1 and if this modulation depends on age. Using immunohistochemistry, we first mapped the cells expressing the DA D1 receptor across the different layers in M1, and quantified the number of pyramidal neurons (PNs) expressing the D1 receptor in the different layers, in young and adult mice. This work reveals that the spatial distribution and the molecular profile of D1 receptor-expressing neurons (D1+) across M1 layers do not change with age. Then, combining whole-cell patch-clamp recordings and pharmacology, we explored ex vivo in young and adult mice the impact of activation or blockade of D1 receptors on D1+ PN intrinsic properties. While the bath application of the D1 receptor agonist induced an increase in the excitability of layer V PNs both in young and adult, we identified a distinct modulation of intrinsic electrical properties of layer V D1+ PNs by D1 receptor antagonist depending on the age of the animal.

The Effect of Perturbation-Based Balance Training vs Step Training on Reaction Time in Older Persons: A Review.

As the global population ages, understanding the impact of aging on cognitive abilities becomes increasingly crucial. One such cognitive function that exhibits significant changes with advancing age is reaction time (RT). This article presents a comprehensive analysis of RT in older adults, examining its underlying mechanisms, age-related changes, and implications for cognitive functioning. Through a review of existing literature, this study explores various factors influencing RT in older individuals, including sensory, motor, and cognitive processes. It highlights how age-related changes in the central nervous system, such as declines in processing speed and neural efficiency, play a significant role in prolonging RTs. Additionally, the role of cumulative life experiences and environmental factors in shaping reaction time in older adults is discussed.