Mother-infant Bond Research Articles

Mother-Infant Bonding and Its Associated Factors Among Mothers in the Postpartum Period, Northwest Ethiopia, 2021.

BackgroundThe emotional bond that a mother senses to her infant is essential to their social, emotional, and cognitive development. Understanding the level of mother-infant bonding plays an imperative role in the excellence of care. However, in Ethiopia, there is a paucity of information about mother-infant bonding in the postpartum period.ObjectiveThis study aimed to assess the level of mother-infant bonding and its associated factors among mothers in the postpartum period, Debre Tabor Town Northwest Ethiopia, 2021.MethodsA community-based cross-sectional study was conducted with 422 postpartum mothers. The postpartum Bonding Questionnaire was used to assess mother-infant bonding. The Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale was used to assess postnatal depression. The level of marital satisfaction was assessed by using Kansas marital satisfaction scale. Social support was assessed by Oslo social support scale. A simple random sampling technique was applied to select study participants. Simple and multiple linear regression were used to identify potential factors associated with the mother-infant bonding scale. A P-value of <0.05 was considered to declare statistical significance.ResultsIn this study, out of 420 postpartum mothers,53 (12.6%) had a risk for the quality of mother-infant bond difficulties between mother and an infant; 8.1% of mothers had a risk for rejection and pathological anger; 3.6% of mothers had a risk for infant-focused anxiety and 1.9% of mothers had risk for incipient abuse of an infant. Maternal depression status [adjusted β coefficient (β) = 2.31, 95% CI: (1.98, 2.64)], non-union marital status [β = 15.58, 95% CI: (9.88, 21.27)], being government employee [β = −5.68, 95% CI: (−9.71, −1.64)], having current pregnancy complication [β = −7.28, 95% CI: (−12.27, −2.29)], being non-breastfeeding mother [β = 7.66, 95% CI: (2.94, 12.38)], substance use history [β = −6.55, 95% CI: (−12.80, −0.30)], and social support [β = −2, 95% CI: (−2.49, −1.50)] were statistically significant factors for mother-infant bonding.ConclusionGenerally, a significant number of mothers had mother-infant bonding difficulties in the postpartum period. Preventing strategies for bonding difficulties focus on social support during pregnancy, screening postpartum mothers for postpartum depression, and special attention to substance users, non-union maternal status, and non-breastfeeding mothers.

Oxytocin - A key to aetiology and treatment for Autism Spectrum Disorder.

The finding that the hypothalamic neuropeptide oxytocin (OXT) plays a key role in social cognition and behavior is one of the most significant discoveries in neuroscience. Since 1987, when work by Keith Kendrick in Cambridge firstly demonstrated that OXT played a central role in both maternal behavior and mother-infant bonds in sheep,1 it has subsequently been reported to be deeply involved in enhancing socially relevant recognition, cognition, memory, reward, empathy, co-operation and attachment behaviors.

The Correlation Between Mother-Infant Bonding and Postpartum Depression in Women with A History of Infertility

Purpose: This study investigated the correlation between mother-infant bonding and postpartum depression in women with a history of infertility.&#x0D; Methods: The sample consisted of 169 women divided into two: infertile group (n=56) and fertile group (n=112). Data were collected using a descriptive information questionnaire, the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (EPDS), and the Mother-to-Infant Bonding Scale (MIBS).&#x0D; Results: The fertile and infertile groups had a mean age of 28.95±3.38 and 36.55±3.55, respectively (p=0.001). The infertile group had a higher mean MIBS score (3.73±2.91) than the fertile group (1.50±1.29) (p=0.001). However, there was no significant difference in EPDS scores between the two groups (p &gt; 0.05). Moreover, there was a positive correlation between MIBS and EPDS score in the fertile group (r = 0.354, p = 0.001), suggesting that the higher the risk for postpartum depression, the lower the mother-infant bonding. There was no correlation between MIBS and EPDS score in the infertile group (p &gt; 0.05).&#x0D; Conclusion: Future studies should recruit larger samples of infertile women with cultural and ethnic diversity and take confounding factors into account to investigate the relationship between postpartum depression and mother-infant bonding.

Postnatal PTSD: Risks and Consequences

Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) occurs in 4% of all pregnancies during the postnatal period. This prevalence can increase in high-risk groups reaching a mean prevalence of 18%. Some risk factors are significantly associated with the development or exacerbation of postnatal PTSD, including prenatal depression and anxiety, pre-pregnancy history of psychiatric disorders, history of sexual trauma, intimate partner violence, emergency childbirth, distressing events during childbirth and psychosocial attributes. Maternal postnatal PTSD is highly associated with the difficulties in mother-infant bond and the postpartum depression. Evidence shows significant links between psychological, traumatic and birth-related risk factors as well as the perceived social support and PTSD following childbirth. The City Birth Trauma Scale can be recommended as a universal instrument for diagnosis of postnatal PTSD.DisclosureWissam El-Hage reports personal fees from Air Liquide, EISAI, Janssen, Lundbeck, Otsuka, UCB and Chugai.

Maternal Anxiety, Depression, Alexithymia, and Social Support: Association With Maternal-Fetal Attachment in Pregnancy

BACKGROUNDMaternal-fetal attachment (MFA) is the emotional bond between a mother and her fetus and is influenced by numerous risk and protective factors during pregnancy. However, according to the literature, the results relating to the influence of these factors are mixed.METHODThe aim of the study is to identify the relationship between MFA and maternal distress, evaluated as maternal depression and anxiety, alexithymia, and perceived social support during the prenatal period in an Italian community sample. Ninety-four pregnant women completed self-report questionnaires.RESULTSResults showed that total MFA was negatively associated with maternal anxiety and alexithymia and was positively associated with social support. Moreover, maternal depression was negatively associated with the quality subscale of MFA The quality subscale of MFA was negatively associated with maternal state and trait anxiety and alexithymia and was positively associated with social support. The intensity subscale of MFA was positively associated with social support. Multiple regression showed that alexithymia and social support predicted MFA with a higher effect than maternal depression and anxiety.CONCLUSIONSThe results are useful for planning interventions aimed at supporting the mother-infant bond starting from pregnancy.

Early Abusive Relationships–Influence of Different Maltreatment Types on Postpartum Psychopathology and Mother-Infant Bonding in a Clinical Sample

Postpartum psychopathology is a well-documented risk factor for impaired mother-infant bonding and thus child development. Increasingly, the focus of research in this area lies on maternal adverse childhood experiences that mothers bring into the relationship with their own baby, especially regarding the possible intergenerational transmission of traumatic experiences. Several studies showed that there is no direct link between child maltreatment and mother-infant bonding as one part of mother-child relationship, but that this link is mediated by postpartum psychopathology. To date, few studies examined differential effects between sexual, physical, and emotional abuse, and physical and emotional neglect, especially in a clinical sample. The aim of this study is to investigate whether the relationship between child maltreatment, psychopathology, and mother-infant bonding can be found for different forms of child maltreatment in patients of a mother-baby unit. Our sample consisted of 330 mothers of a mother-baby-unit in a psychosomatic clinic, who filled out self-report measures at time of admission. Mothers reported on maternal child maltreatment history with the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire, on current psychopathology with the Brief Symptom Inventory, and on mother-infant bonding with the Postpartum Bonding Questionnaire. Mediation analyses were performed with psychopathology as mediator, child maltreatment history as independent, and mother-infant bonding as dependent variable. There was no total effect of child maltreatment on mother-infant bonding. However, there were significant indirect effects of child maltreatment in general (ab = 0.09) and of the various forms of child maltreatment on mother-infant bonding via psychopathology (0.16 ≤ ab ≤ 0.34). The strongest effect was found for emotional abuse. After controlling for psychopathology, the direct effect of physical abuse on mother-infant bonding presented as a negative significant effect. This indicates that the more severe the physical abuse experienced, the better the self-reported bonding. A similar, but non-significant trend was found for sexual abuse. Our findings highlight the importance of assessing neglect forms of child maltreatment as well as abuse in women during the perinatal period. It further supports initial findings that different forms of child maltreatment can have differential effects on mother-infant bonding as one aspect of the mother-child relationship. Further research should include observational data to compare with self-report measures.

Subjective Birth Experience Predicts Mother-Infant Bonding Difficulties in Women With Mental Disorders.

BackgroundThe subjective experience of giving birth to a child varies considerably depending on psychological, medical, situational, relational, and other individual characteristics. In turn, it may have an impact on postpartum maternal mental health and family relationships, such as mother–infant bonding. The objective of the study was to evaluate the relevance of the subjective birth experience (SBE) for mother–infant bonding difficulties (BD) in women with mental disorders.MethodsThis study used data from N = 141 mothers who were treated for postpartum mental disorders in the mother–baby day unit of the Psychosomatic University Clinic in Dresden, Germany. Patients' mental status at admission and discharge was routinely examined using a diagnostic interview (SCID I) and standard psychometric questionnaires (e.g., EPDS, BSI, PBQ). Both, the SBE (assessed by Salmon's Item List, SIL) as well as medical complications (MC) were assessed retrospectively by self-report. The predictive value of SBE, MC, as well as psychopathological symptoms for mother–infant BD were evaluated using logistic regression analyses.ResultsAbout half of this clinical sample (47.2%) reported a negative SBE; 56.8% of all mothers presented with severe mother–infant BD toward the baby. Mothers with BD showed not only significantly more depressiveness (EPDS: M = 16.6 ± 5.6 vs. 14.4 ± 6.2*), anxiety (STAI: M = 57.2 ± 10.6 vs. 51.4 ± 10.6***), and general psychopathology (BSI-GSI: M = 1.4 ± 0.7 vs. 1.1 ± 0.6**) compared to women without BD, but also a significantly more negative SBE (SIL: M = 79.3 ± 16.2 vs. 61.3 ± 22.9***). Moreover, the SBE was the most powerful predictor for BD in univariate and multiple logistic regression analyses [OR = 0.96*** (95% CI 0.94–0.98) vs. OR = 0.96** (95% CI 0.93–0.98)], even when univariate significant predictors (e.g., current psychopathology and MC during birth) were controlled.ConclusionsA negative SBE is strongly associated with mother–infant bonding in patients with postpartum mental disorders. It needs to get targeted within postpartum treatment, preferably in settings including both mother and child, to improve distorted mother–infant bonding processes and prevent long-term risks for the newborn. Furthermore, the results highlight the importance of focusing on the specific needs of vulnerable women prior to and during birth (e.g., emotional safety, good communication, and support) as well as individual factors that might be predictive for a negative SBE.

Association of Paternity Leave with Impaired Father-Infant Bonding: Findings from a Nationwide Online Survey in Japan.

Although the number of fathers taking childcare leave is increasing, the impact of paternity leave on father–infant bonding remains to be fully investigated. This study aimed to assess the association between paternity leave and father–infant bonding among fathers with children under two years old. A cross-sectional study was performed using data from the Japan COVID-19 and Society Internet Survey study, a nationwide online survey conducted between July and August 2021 (N = 1194). Father–infant bonding was assessed by the Japanese version of the Mother–Infant Bonding Scale (MIBS-J), which comprised two subscales (lack of affection (LA), and anger and rejection (AR)), with a higher score denoting poor bonding. Four hundred (33.5%) fathers self-reported taking childcare leave. Paternity leave was associated with higher total MIBS-J score and AR score after adjusting for covariates (coefficient 0.51; 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.06–0.96, coefficient 0.26; 95% CI 0.03–0.49, respectively), but not with LA score (coefficient 0.10; 95% CI −0.13–0.34). There was no trend in the association between paternity leave and total MIBS-J score by children’s age group (p for trend = 0.98). Paternity leave was associated with impaired bonding, especially with increased anger and rejection, among fathers with children under two years of age.

The Effects of Prenatal Diagnosis on the Interaction of the Mother-Infant Dyad: A Longitudinal Study of Prenatal Care in the First Year of Life.

IntroductionMother–child interactions during the first years of life have a significant impact on the emotional and cognitive development of the child. In this work, we study how a prenatal diagnosis of malformation may affect maternal representations and the quality of these early interactions. To this end, we conducted a longitudinal observational study of mother–child interactions from the gestational stage until the baby completed 12 months of age.Participants and MethodsWe recruited 250 pregnant women from a local university hospital. Among them, 50 mother–infant dyads participated in all stages of the study. The study group consisted of 25 pregnant women with fetuses with some structural alteration and the control group consisted of 25 pregnant women with fetuses without structural anomalies. We collected obstetric and socio demographic data and pregnancy outcomes. Anxiety and depressive state data were collected using the COVI and Raskin Scales. We video-recorded the mother–infant interactions during several stages, including when the child was a newborn and when the child was 2, 4, 6, 9, and 12 months of age. The quality of the mother infant interactions were measured using the Coding Interactive Behavior (CIB). The interactive moments recorded on video was composed of three different activities, each one lasting appoximately 3 min, which included (1) Free Interaction, where the mother was instructed to interact “as usual” without any toy, (2) Toy Interaction, where the mother and baby played with a puppv, and (3) Song Interaction, where the mother and baby interacted while the mother sang the “Happy Birthday” song.ResultsIn the gestational phase, there was a significant difference between the groups with respect to anxiety and depression scores, which were significantly higher for the study group. In the postnatal phase, we found significant differences between the groups with respect to CIB scales after the child completed 6 months of age: the study group presented significantly higher values of Maternal Sensitivity at 6 months of age, of Baby Involvement at 9 and 12 months of age, and of Dyadic Reciprocity at 6, 9, and 12 months of age, while the control group presented significantly higher values of Withdrawal of the Baby at 6 months of age, and of Dyadic Negative States at 6 and 9 months of age.ConclusionThe support offered by the study favored the mother–infant bond and had a positive effect on the quality of interaction during the first year of life, despite the presence of prenatal diagnosis.

How Mindful Awareness and Psychological Distress Influence Mother-Infant Bonding and Maternal Perceptions of Infant Temperament

How Mindful Awareness and Psychological Distress Influence Mother-Infant Bonding and Maternal Perceptions of Infant Temperament

Bebek Masajı ve Kullanılan Masaj Yağları: Güvenli mi?

Massage has been practiced in infant care for many years since it creates a good mother-infant bond, contributes to the prevention of morbidity, and provides better physical development. Baby oil massage has been shown to have several benefits in neonates. However, recent studies have reported that not all oils are appropriate for baby massage. This study was conducted to discuss the results of studies on the benefits of oil massage, which can affect skin properties and functions during the maturation process of the neonate whose skin has still not fully developed, and the possible effects of oils. In the study, it was also aimed to briefly review the safety of oils to be used in neonate skincare or massage, the importance of knowing the properties of herbal oils before choosing or using a particular one for a massage, and the role of professionals and parents. Moreover, up-to-date information on the use and effects of different herbal oils on the massage of preterm and term babies was provided. Studies show that more research is needed to clearly answer which herbal oil is more effective and safer for infant massage.

Variation in the Mu-Opioid Receptor (OPRM1) and Offspring Sex Are Associated With Maternal Behavior in Rhesus Macaques (Macaca mulatta).

A μ-opioid receptor (OPRM1) single-nucleotide-polymorphism, found in both humans and rhesus macaques mediates the mother-infant attachment bond. Because mothers treat their sons and daughters differently, it is somewhat surprising that the role of infant sex has not been assessed in the context of a maternal-OPRM1-genotype-by-infant-sex interaction. The present study investigates the effect of maternal-OPRM1-genotype and infant sex on mother-infant behaviors. Over the first 6 months of offspring life, mother-infant behavioral data assessing attachment quality was collected twice weekly from a large number of rhesus monkey mother-infant pairs (N = 161 dyads; n = 64 female infants, n = 97 male infants). Mothers were genotyped for OPRM1 variation. Factor analysis of the observed behaviors showed two factors: Attachment (maternal-infant cradling, rejections, and infant approaches and leaves), and Maternal Restraints (mother restrains infant, preventing exploration). Further analyses showed a two-way, maternal-genotype-by-infant-sex interaction for both factors. For Attachment, mothers with the CC genotype cradled and restrained (Maternal Restraints) their female infants more and rejected them less, when compared to female infants of CG mothers. Perhaps as a consequence, female infants of CC genotype mothers approached and left their mothers less often, when compared to female infants of CG mothers, likely an indication that female infants from mothers with CG genotype play a greater role in maintaining the mother-infant bond than do female infants from CC genotype mothers. This finding may also indicate a more secure attachment in infants from CC genotype mothers. Unlike female infants, on average, the mother-infant relationship of dyads with a male infant was largely undifferentiated by maternal genotype. These findings suggest that, in contrast to female infants from CG mothers, CC mothers and their female infants appear to have a closer mother-infant relationship which may portend close life-long bonds, as mothers and female offspring remain together throughout life. Male offspring appear to have a more aloof mother-infant bond regardless of OPRM1-genotype. The results of this study indicate that maternal-OPRM1 variation mediates mother-infant attachment behaviors for female infants and has less effect for male infants. This suggests that offspring sex should be included in studies investigating the effect of maternal-OPRM1 genotype on the mother-infant attachment relationship.

Dual Nature of RAGE in Host Reaction and Nurturing the Mother-Infant Bond.

Non-enzymatic glycation is an unavoidable reaction that occurs across biological taxa. The final products of this irreversible reaction are called advanced glycation end-products (AGEs). The endogenously formed AGEs are known to be bioactive and detrimental to human health. Additionally, exogenous food-derived AGEs are debated to contribute to the development of aging and various diseases. Receptor for AGEs (RAGE) is widely known to elicit biological reactions. The binding of RAGE to other ligands (e.g., high mobility group box 1, S100 proteins, lipopolysaccharides, and amyloid-β) can result in pathological processes via the activation of intracellular RAGE signaling pathways, including inflammation, diabetes, aging, cancer growth, and metastasis. RAGE is now recognized as a pattern-recognition receptor. All mammals have RAGE homologs; however, other vertebrates, such as birds, amphibians, fish, and reptiles, do not have RAGE at the genomic level. This evidence from an evolutionary perspective allows us to understand why mammals require RAGE. In this review, we provide an overview of the scientific knowledge about the role of RAGE in physiological and pathological processes. In particular, we focus on (1) RAGE biology, (2) the role of RAGE in physiological and pathophysiological processes, (3) RAGE isoforms, including full-length membrane-bound RAGE (mRAGE), and the soluble forms of RAGE (sRAGE), which comprise endogenous secretory RAGE (esRAGE) and an ectodomain-shed form of RAGE, and (4) oxytocin transporters in the brain and intestine, which are important for maternal bonding and social behaviors.

Mother-Infant Bonding in Patients with Bipolar Disorder.

The quality of mother-infant bonding might play a role in future psychopathologies of the infant. The present study aims to compare the mother-infant bonding in mothers with remitted bipolar disorder (BD) and healthy mothers. We included 51 mothers who have bipolar disorder in remission and 53 healthy mothers during postpartum one-year period. All participants were interviewed with Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV (SCID-IV). Young Mania Rating Scale and the Hamilton Depression Rating Scale were given to the patient group to evaluate depressive and manic symptoms. Mother-infant bonding in both groups were evaluated with the Postpartum Bonding Questionnaire (PBQ). There was no significant difference in PBQ scores between the bipolar group and the control group. Age was negatively correlated with PBQ scores in the patient group. Women with bipolar disorder can develop healthy bonding patterns with their babies, during remission.

Postpartum evaluation of the role of maternal characteristics and mode of delivery on maternal attachment, anxiety and depression; a study conducted in Turkey'.

Background and aim:The primary aim of this study was to compare mother-infant bonding (MIB) in patients who delivered vaginally and with cesarean section (C/S) using the Maternal Attachment Inventory (MAI), Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (EPDS), and Postpartum Specific Anxiety Scale (PSAS) in the Turkish population. The secondary aim was to evaluate the correlations between the MAI, EPDS, and PSAS scores and their association with sociodemographic data.Method:A total of 200 patients were divided into two groups. One hundred women who delivered vaginally were included in the vaginal delivery (NVD) group, and 100 who delivered with C/S were included in the C/S group. The demographic data of the subjects, including age, gravidity, and parity, were recorded, and a detailed anamnesis was taken on the day of hospitalization for delivery. The newborns’ sex were also taken into account. All patients were asked to complete the MAI, EPDS, and PSAS at the third-month postpartum control.Results:The PSAS score in the NVD group was calculated to be 68.9 ± 9.0, which was significantly higher than the score in the C/S group of 65.0 ± 9.6 (p = 0.005). However, the MAI and EPDS scores in both groups were calculated to be similar (p = 0.833 and p = 0.260, respectively). A significant negative correlation was observed between age and the MAI (r = -0.180, p = 0.011) and between the number of children and the MAI (r = -0.140, p = 0.048).Conclusions:The results of this study, which was conducted using a Turkish cohort, show that maternal age at delivery and the number of children at home had an effect on MIB. Conversely, mode of delivery did not influence MIB in this study population. Multicenter studies with a larger number of subjects are needed to reach a general conclusion regarding the Turkish population. (www.actabiomedica.it)

Management of Psychiatric Disorders during the Perinatal Period.

Management of Psychiatric Disorders during the Perinatal Period.

As early as birth, oxytocin plays a key role in both food and social behavior

Oxytocin (OT) is a neurohormone that regulates the so-called "social brain" and is mainly studied in adulthood. During postnatal development, the mechanisms by which the OT system structures various behaviors are little studied. Here we present the dynamic process of postnatal development of the OT system as well as the OT functions in the perinatal period that are essential for shaping social behaviors. Specifically, we discuss the role of OT, in the newborn, in integrating and adapting responses to early sensory stimuli and in stimulating suckling activity. Sensory dialogue and suckling are involved in mother-infant bonds and structure future social interactions. In rodents and humans, neurodevelopmental diseases with autism spectrum disorders (ASD), such as Prader-Willi and Schaaf-Yang syndromes, are associated with sensory, feeding and behavioral deficits in infancy. We propose that in early postnatal life, OT plays a key role in stimulating the maturation of neural networks controlling feeding behavior and early social interactions from birth. Administration of OT at birth improves sensory integration of environmental factors and the relationship with the mother as well as sucking activity as we have shown in mouse models and in babies with Prader-Willi syndrome. Long-term effects have also been observed on social and cognitive behavior. Therefore, early feeding difficulties might be an early predictive marker of ASD, and OT treatment a promising option to improve feeding behavior and, in the longer term, social behavioral problems.

Mother-infant relationship and its Predictors.

ObjectiveCreating attachment between mother and infant is an extremely sensitive process in the postpartum period. In this regard, understanding the predictive features of the mother-infant relationship (MIR) can help health care providers in designing and implementing MIR enhancement interventions. Therefore, we ran this study to determine the degree of attachment between mother and infant and its predictors.MethodsThis was a cross-sectional study on 406 mothers referred to comprehensive healthcare centers in Rasht. We used the multi-stage cluster random sampling. Our data collection tools included: a data collection form to determine the predictors of maternal and infant attachment, which was designed by researchers and the standard MIRscale. The significance level of the test was considered less than 5%.ResultsThe mean MIR score was 12.7±8.1. The highest score of attachment between mother and infant was in the area of risk of infant harassment and the lowest score was in the field of the mother-infant bond. The results of the logistic regression test showed that the MIR scores were statistically significant with spouse age, spouse education, number of deliveries, and breastfeeding problems (p<0.05).ConclusionsThe findings showed that there was a significant relationship between MIR and spouse age, spouse education, number of deliveries, and breastfeeding problems. Therefore, attention to these issues should be considered in planning to improve the MIR.

Neural representation of the parent–child attachment from infancy to adulthood

Attachment theory is built on the assumption of consistency; the mother–infant bond is thought to underpin the life-long representations individuals construct of attachment relationships. Still, consistency in the individual’s neural response to attachment-related stimuli representing his or her entire relational history has not been investigated. Mothers and children were followed across two decades and videotaped in infancy (3–6 months), childhood (9–12 years) and young adulthood (18–24 years). In adulthood, participants underwent functional magnetic resonance imaging while exposed to videos of own mother–child interactions (Self) vs unfamiliar interactions (Other). Self-stimuli elicited greater activations across preregistered nodes of the human attachment network, including thalamus-to-brainstem, amygdala, hippocampus, anterior cingulate cortex (ACC), insula and temporal cortex. Critically, self-stimuli were age-invariant in most regions of interest despite large variability in social behavior, and Bayesian analysis showed strong evidence for lack of age-related differences. Psycho–physiological interaction analysis indicated that self-stimuli elicited tighter connectivity between ACC and anterior insula, consolidating an interface associating information from exteroceptive and interceptive sources to sustain attachment representations. Child social engagement behavior was individually stable from infancy to adulthood and linked with greater ACC and insula response to self-stimuli. Findings demonstrate overlap in circuits sustaining parental and child attachment and accord with perspectives on the continuity of attachment across human development.

The Role of Oxytocin and the Effect of Stress During Childbirth: Neurobiological Basics and Implications for Mother and Child.

The neuropeptide oxytocin acts as a hormone and a neuromodulator, influencing a multitude of human social behaviors, including reproduction. During childbirth and the postpartum period, it plays a key role in regulating and controlling processes that ensure a safe birth and the health of mother and child. Especially the onset of labor, the progress of labor and initial breastfeeding are mediated by oxytocin. In the maternal brain it controls the initiation of the mother–infant bond and the mother’s emotional responses towards her child. In this review we summarize the current state of knowledge about the role of oxytocin during the different aspects and mechanisms of human childbirth, combining research from human and animal studies. Physiological and psychological stress during childbirth and lactation can have negative effects on the progress of labor, breastfeeding and bonding. We discuss how maternity caregivers can support the positive effects of oxytocin and minimize the effects of stress. Furthermore, we highlight aspects of the basic neurobiological principles and connections where further research is needed to improve our understanding of the regulation and the effects of oxytocin to support maternal and infant health.