Motacilla Alba Research Articles

Mitochondrial DNA and plumage evolution in the white wagtailMotacilla alba

We analyzed sequences of two mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) gene regions (control region and ND2) totaling 1477 base‐pairs from 232 specimens of the white wagtailMotacilla albaobtained from 27 localities throughout Eurasia. Although overall haplotype diversity was relatively low (0.79) and the most common haplotype was shared by 45% of individuals, belonging to six subspecies, a high level of population differentiation was detected. The mtDNA tree revealed three clades: (1) most individuals from Krasnodar (belonging toM. a. albasubspecies), (2) all individuals from Almaty and some from Primor'e (belonging toM. a. personata,M. a. lugensandM. a. leucopsissubspecies), and (3) the remaining individuals (representing all subspecies and all localities except Almaty). We suggest that these three clades represent historically isolated populations that relatively recently came into secondary contact in Krasnodar and Primor'e. None of the six subspecies were reciprocally monophyletic in the mtDNA tree. The Krasnodar population appeared to receive immigrants from other localities, but distinctive haplotypes from this locality did not appear elsewhere, suggesting asymmetric gene flow. Signatures of recent gene flow between northern populations were detected, and there was no evidence of isolation by distance within the northern group of populations. Mismatch distributions for most localities were consistent with population expansions. We also analyzed 12 male plumage characters from 93 study skins sampled from 24 populations. Phylogenetic trees resulting from separate genetic and morphological analyses were incongruent. Plumage evolution seems to be under strong sexual or natural selection, which favors particular phenotypes in various areas irrespective of the mitochondrial background. Dispersal events at different evolutionary times could have obscured the effects of earlier isolation events. The mtDNA data does not support species status forM. a. lugensandM. a. personata, which shared haplotypes with other subspecies ofM. alba. We recommend thatM. lugensandM. personataare placed as junior synonyms ofM. alba.

Biometry of young White Wagtails (Motacilla alba) and Yellow Wagtails (Motacilla flava) caught in the Gulf of Gdańsk region during autumn migration

Biometry of young White Wagtails (Motacilla alba) and Yellow Wagtails (Motacilla flava) caught in the Gulf of Gdańsk region during autumn migration Biometrics of juvenile 760 White Wagtails and 714 Yellow Wagtails migrating through the Gulf of Gdańsk region in autumn were studied between 1990 and 2000. In both species distributions of wing length, body mass and indices of wing shape were unimodal, with only one exception - in the White Wagtail the wing length distribution showed two peaks caused by sexual dimorphism. The mean body mass and reserves of fat in both species were low in comparison to other stopover sites. There were significant differences in mean weight between birds caught in the morning and in the evening. The majority of birds behave as energy minimising migrants and migrate with low fat reserves in small steps.

Fugler i Norge 2000 - Rapport fra Norsk faunakomité for fugl (NFKF)

THE NORWEGIAN BIRD REPORT 2000 - a report on locally uncommon and scarce birds in Norway in 2000, by the Norwegian Bird Records Committee (NFKF) The basis of this report is the annual reports produced by the county rarities committees. For 2000 all the counties, with the exception of Finnmark and Sogn og Fjordane counties contributed to the report. Only limited information for some species was received from Troms. The Svalbard archipelago and Jan Mayen are not represented in this report. With the exception of the northernmost counties the report thus reflects fairly well the observations reported from Norway in 2000. Readers should take care to note the geographical and time delimitation of the records stated for the different species, as stated in codes immediately after the scientific name of the species. This report details records of locally uncommon and scarce birds only, and not national rarities. National rarity records are treated by the Norwegian Rare Bird Committee (NSKF) and are published separately (e.g. Mjolsnes et al . 2005). Notable observations in 2000 were influxes or higher numbers than usual of different species, such as Corncrake Crex crex , Spotted Crake Porzana porzana , Snowy Owl Nyctea scandiaca and Black Redstart Phoenicurus ochruros . New arrivals of Guillemot Uria aalge in the larger freshwater lakes in southern parts of Norway were notable. This influx follows the larger influx in 1997 from which birds still remain in these freshwater bodies. The growth of the recently established colonies of Cormorant of the subspecies sinensis continued, with 482 nests at Ora (OF) (first confirmed breeding in 1997). The status of the colony at Orrevann (RO) in 2000 is unknown, but contained more than 100 nests in 1999 (first confirmed breeding with 6 nests in 1996). In addition many birds have been recorded from other freshwater sites in Southern Norway. The Norwegian population of Lesser White-fronted Goose (the last remaining wild population of this species in Europe) still lingers on, with 64 individuals recorded during spring migration. Breeding failure prevailed this year with only one pair with 2 juveniles recorded (compared to 17 successful breeding pairs in 1999). The partly introduced population of Barnacle Goose in the Oslofjord-area continued to increase (59 pairs in 1999). White-tailed Eagles also continued their range expansion in the southernmost regions, e.g. 5 birds recorded at Ora (OF), where the last breeding record stems from 1882. The Peregrine also increases strongly in Norway, with now around 500 breeding pairs (up from a low of ca. 50 pairs in the 1950’s and 1960’s). The aid of playback of sound recordings has revealed more Water Rails during late autumn and winter than hitherto known, suggesting that many birds migrate to the western coasts of Norway. The Corncrake had another good year with a new record of 131-137 individuals in 2000. The first wintering record of Common Crane from 2.1-12.3 at Jaeren (RO) was notable and as with other species indicate that the climate is changing towards milder winters. Many new lekking sites of Great Snipe were also detected this year, and one unusual late record of a specimen at Ostensjovann, As (OA) was made 3.12. Woodcock also occurred in unusually high wintering numbers with 134 individuals. An influx of Iceland Gull was noted in the southern parts of Norway with 58 individuals, including one inland observation from Mjosa (OP). One of the birds in Trondheim (ST) was a possible kumlieni . Readers should note that both Glaucous Gull and Iceland Gull are common and occur in larger numbers (hundreds) in the northernmost counties. An influx of Snowy Owl during the autumn was noted in all parts of the country, with 57-58 individuals. The trend towards milder winter climate has brought a significant increase in the breeding population of Grey Wagtail, and the numbers of wintering White Wagtail and Dunnock have increased. The numbers of White Wagtail subspecies yarrellii occurring during the summer months are steadily increasing. A spring influx of Stonechat brings back hope for a re-establishment of the western coast breeding population. The autumn migration of Yellow-browed Warbler resulted in a new national record in one year with 64 individuals. Also notable was a winter record of a Willow Warbler in December. Bearded Tits continued to occur in good numbers following the influx of 1999. The influx of Nutcrackers in 1995 helped establish a thriving breeding population outside their normal breeding areas in Norway (such as in ST), while the remnants of the influx of Two-barred Crossbill in 1996 finally seem to fade away. The Hawfinch is still spreading northwards and is now recorded more frequently, including as far north as TR.

Sjeldne fugler i Norge i 2004 - Rapport fra Norsk sjeldenhetskomité for fugl (NSKF)

This is the 28th annual report and the 29th announcement from the Norwegian Rarities Committee (NSKF). Most of the records treated here are from 2003, but older records are also included. The systematic list of accepted records is set out in the following system: (1) The bird’s Norwegian name, (2) scientific name, (3) the numbers in brackets, e.g. (30/32 - 1), refers respectively to the total number of records/total number of individuals up to and including 2002, and in 2003, (4) any limitations given of (3), (5) any breeding, (6) year, (7) county, (8) number of individuals, age (1K = first calendar year etc.), sex (if known) and sometimes circumstances («ringmerket» means that the bird was ringed), (9) site and municipality, (10) date, (11) * indicates if the record was complemented by positive evidence, and type of the evidence (F = photo, V = video-recorded, L = tape-recorded, D = found dead), (12) observers names in brackets, main observer is specified first and emphasized with *, (13) roughly gives the species general distribution and (14) comments concerning the records. General trends: This year was the second best in the history of NSKF concerning number of accepted records. Several species reached record numbers. Most significant were the influxes of Water Pipit Anthus spinoletta (17 records) and Hume’s Warbler Phylloscopus humei (10 records) during autumn. Five records of Black-necked Grebe Podiceps nigricollis , two records of Black-browed Albatross Thalassarche melanopris , four records of Balearic Shearwater Puffinus mauretanicus , six records of Bittern Botaurus stellaris , nine records of Red Kite Milvus milvus , two records of Sharp-tailed Sandpiper Calidris acuminata, six records of Mediterranean Gull Larus melanocephalus , two records of Caspian Gull Larus cachinnans and five records of Red-rumped Swallow Hirundo daurica were all maximum records for one single year. Four records of White-rumped Sandpiper Calidris fuscicollis and two records of Isabelline Shrike Lanius isabellinus were equal to previous maximum number of records. New accepted records from 2002 resulted in an increase in the maximum number of records for Great Reed Warbler Acrocephalus arundinaceus (9 records) and Blyth’s Reed Warbler Acrocephalus dumetorum (7 records). Pallid Harrier Circus macrourus (6 records), M ontagu’s Harrier Circus pygargus (6 records), Pectoral Sandpiper Calidris melanotos (12 records), Olive-backed Pipit Anthus hodgsoni (4 records) and Pallas’s Leaf Warbler Phylloscopus proregulus (20 records) were also recorded in relatively high numbers. Species and subspecies new to the Norwegian list: Two species were added to the Norwegian category A list: Yellow-legged Gull Larus michahellis and Ovenbird Seiurus aurocapillus . A record of Masked Wagtail Motacilla alba personata added a new subspecies to the Norwegian list. A record of Lammergeier Gypaetus barbatus was placed in category D and a record of Turkey Vulture Cathartes aura from 2002 was placed in category E. With these new records the official Norwegian bird list consists of 466 species. In 2003, Black-necked Grebe Podiceps nigricollis was recorded breeding in Norway for the first time with one brood successfully raised, and Pink-footed Goose Anser brachyrhynchus was recorded breeding for the first time on the Norwegian mainland excluding Svalbard).

Breeding of the Japanese pied wagtail Motacilla alba lugens on the Kochi Plain

Breeding of the Japanese pied wagtail Motacilla alba lugens on the Kochi Plain

What factors determine where invertebrate‐feeding birds forage in dry agricultural grasslands?

Increases in the intensity of the management of agricultural grasslands over the past 50 years have reduced plant species diversity in swards and increased uniformity in structure through changes in fertilizer regimes, grazing and mowing practices. These factors, as well as increased disturbance and trampling, have reduced the number and diversity of forbs and thus the diversity and abundance of invertebrates, in particular of foliar species. Associated with these changes in management, there has been a large decline in the abundance of many species of farmland birds in pastoral areas and more local extinctions compared with arable areas. To understand the impact of these management changes on bird populations, and design measures to reverse the declines, it is necessary to identify the key factors influencing bird usage of fields. We review results from five studies, which have related fertilizer and grazing management to bird usage of grass fields. Species that fed on soil invertebrates tended to show a positive response to the amount of nitrogen fertilizer added and increased grazing pressure, although there was a high degree of correlation between these two variables. In summer, many species, including corvids, Common Blackbird Turdus merula, Common Starling Sturnus vulgaris, Pied Wagtail Motacilla alba and Hedge Accentor Prunella modularis, showed a negative relationship with sward height, and in winter more species showed a positive relationship with bare ground. Taller sward heights are associated with a greater abundance and diversity of bird invertebrate food resources, and accessibility of food items or a lower risk of predation (actual or perceived) are likely to be the reasons for birds choosing to forage on shorter swards and in areas with more bare ground. Birds feeding on soil invertebrates were found to be generally tolerant of modern management practices that maintain short swards short, as accessibility to the soil has been increased. Species that feed on foliar invertebrates or forb seeds have been affected negatively by modern grassland agricultural practices.

Evidence for declines in populations of grassland-associated birds in marginal upland areas of Britain

Capsule We report large declines among summer populations between 1968–80 and 2000. Aim To assess changes in the status of breeding populations of birds in pastoral uplands. Methods Volunteer observers revisited 13 areas of marginal upland in Britain where Common Birds Census data were collected during 1968–80. This allowed the status of 35 bird species to be examined over about 20 years and to make a comparison between grassland-based and woodland-based species. Results For 12 species the decline in abundance was significant, particularly among passerines, such as Skylark Alauda arvensis, Wheatear Oenanthe oenanthe, Whinchat Saxicola rubetra, Yellow Wagtail Motacilla flava and Yellowhammer Emberiza citrinella, each of which declined by over 80%. Redshank Tringa totanus, Yellow Wagtail, Dipper Cinclus cinclus, Whinchat, Wheatear, Ring Ouzel Turdus torquatus and Yellowhammer were found on less than half the number of plots on which they were originally recorded. Most declining species were associated with grassland for nesting and foraging, compared to those species that increased (Wood Pigeon Columba palumbus, Pied Wagtail Motacilla alba, Carrion Crow Corvus corone, Jackdaw C. monedula and Goldfinch Carduelis carduelis) that were less specialized in their habitat requirements. Woodland or woodland edge species showed no significant change in status, suggesting that population declines among grassland species were not due to lower observer effort between recording periods. Conclusion Long-term changes to grassland ecosystems in marginal upland areas of Britain may have influenced the status of bird populations.

Spring arrival of passerine migrants in Iceland

First sightings in Iceland throughout the 20th century of four summer migrant passerines were studied for possible changes in arrival dates over time, and to relate arrivals to weather conditions in Iceland and in their probable wintering and staging areas. Arrival dates advanced considerably until the 1930s, as Icelandic seasonal temperatures increased. Temperatures and arrival dates changed much less in later years, when Icelandic temperatures showed no sustained trends. Since 1950, Redwings Turdus iliacus coburni have first been seen in the last week of March, Meadow Pipits Anthus pratensis and White Wagtails Motacilla a alba about 20 April and Wheatears Oenanthe o leucorhoa about 25 April. All four species were usually seen earlier when springs in Iceland were warm and wet, and after warm winters in southern Spain. Limited records of departures in autumn suggest that the mean lengths of stay in 1951–2000 were: Redwing 233 days, Meadow Pipit 164, White Wagtail 162 and Wheatear 144 days. Sightings of Redwings and Meadow Pipits, some of which winter in Britain & Ireland, were earlier after warm winters, and during warm springs, in central England. White Wagtails and Wheatears, wintering in Africa, showed no response to English temperatures. First sightings were most likely when winds over Iceland had easterly or southerly components. In 1951–1970 arrivals of Redwings and Meadow Pipits were earlier after winters in which the North Atlantic Oscillation index had been positive and high, but before and after that period no linkage was apparent. Most of these findings resemble those reported from north Norway, though the populations of at least three of the species are probably different. They are unlike the findings from Britain and western Europe, where dates of arrival have advanced most rapidly in recent years while winter and spring warming has continued.

Compte rendu ornithologique camarguais pour les années 1995-2000

The present ornithological report for the Camargue covers six years (1995-2000). This time-period was characterized by mild and wet winters (except the winter of 1999-2000 which was very dry but remained mild). The mean temperatures were all higher than those measured previously. Twenty-two new species have been recorded for the first time (their list is given in the introduction of this paper). The following rare species have been observed again : Bluewinged Teal (a ringed bird in Québec/Canada shows the wild origin of at least one of the three birds seen), Lesser Scaup, Ring-necked Duck, Eastern Imperial Eagle, Lanner Falcon, Saker Falcon, Purple Swamp-hen, Great Bustard, Black-winged Pratincole, Great Sand Plover, Sociable Lapwing, Purple Sandpiper, Buff-breasted Sandpiper, Wilson’s Phalarope, Audouin’s Gull, Arctic Tern, Common Guillemot, Blue-cheeked Bea-eater, Horned Lark, Richard’s Pipit, Blyth’s Pipit, Isabelline Wheatear, Desert Wheatear, Paddyfield Warbler, Marsh Warbler, Barred Warbler, Yellow-browed Warbler, Red-breasted Flycatcher, European Nuthatch, Rosy Starling, Snowfinch, Trumpeter Finch and Lapland Longspur. Among the species or group of species which are regularly censused, two arboreal herons (Little Egret and Cattle Egret) have dramatically increased their numbers ; the 680 pairs of Night Heron and 266 pairs of Squacco Heron in 2000 must be outlined. The Grey Heron stopped its spectacular increase and the Purple Heron continued to fluctuate (1 370 nests in 1996 and 664 nests in 2000). The Greater Flamingo reached the very high figure of 22 200 pairs in 2000 (13 000 in 1996). The breeding gulls and terns in the salines showed some new trends : the Black-headed Gull dramatically decreased (but began to colonize freshwater breeding sites), the Mediterranean Gull reached the very high number of 1 877 pairs in 2000, the Slender-billed Gull maintained its high breeding number (850 pairs in 2000). The four tern species showed the usual fluctuations. The high number of breeding Yellow-legged Gull remained a concern. The salines at Salin-de-Giraud harboured most of the breeding population during this time-period whereas the salines at Aigues-Mortes lost most of their birds. The wintering ducks and coots continued their overall decrease considered as linked to excessive hunting pressure (mostly through disturbance effect of hunting on feeding grounds). The species that have been found breeding for the first time are the Great Cormorant (in 1998), the Great White Egret (first sucessful breeding in 1996), the Eurasian Spoonbill (in 1998), the Eagle Owl (in 2000) and the Pied Wagtail. Among the breeding species, the Collared Pratincole showed a good breeding success in 2000 (42 pairs and 45 fledglings) and several breeding records were found for the Great Spotted Cuckoo. Some species increasingly overwintered : Night Heron, Black Stork, White Stork, Black Kite, Osprey, Common Crane, Stone-curlew, Little Ringed Plover, Common Tern and Pine Bunting.

Effects of feral mink removal on seabirds, waders and passerines on small islands in the Baltic Sea

We studied the effects of removing introduced American mink (Mustela vison) on the number of birds breeding on small islands in the Baltic Sea. During autumn 1992–2001 mink were removed from a 72 km2 area, while mink were not removed from a 35 km2 control area. Second removal (125 km2) and control areas (130 km2) were established during 1998–2001. The breeding densities of ringed plover (Charadrius hiaticula), arctic skua (Stercorarius parasiticus), arctic tern (Sterna paradisaea) and rock pipit (Anthus petrosus) increased markedly in the removal areas in comparison to the control areas. Turnstone (Arenaria interpres), common gull (Larus canus) and wheatear (Oenanthe oenanthe) also appeared to increase. Two species already extinct in one of the removal areas, razorbill (Alca torda) and black guillemot (Cepphus grylle), returned to breed in the area. Breeding densities of great black-backed gull (Larus marinus), oystercatcher (Haematopus ostralegus) and white wagtail (Motacilla alba) were unaffected. We conclude that it is possible to remove feral mink from large archipelagos with many small islands, and that mink removal increases the breeding densities of many bird species in this habitat.

British Ornithologists’ Union Records Committee: 28th Report (October 2001)

British Ornithologists’ Union Records Committee: 28th Report (October 2001)

Earlier arrival of some farmland migrants in western Poland

A dataset consisting of observations on the first arrival dates (FAD) of 16 species of birds from a locality in western Poland during the period 1913–1996 is presented and analysed. For 14 of the 16 species, there is evidence of a trend towards earliness in recent years. In the 1970–1996 period this trend was significant for Pied Wagtail, Wood Pigeon, Black Redstart and Barn Swallow, and marginally significant for a further four species: European Serin, Blackcap, Common Nightingale and Red‐backed Shrike. Only two species showed the opposite trend in the 1970–1996 period: Lesser Whitethroat and Whinchat, of which only the former is (marginally) significant. The trend towards earliness was more pronounced for short‐distance (European) migrants than for long‐distance (African) migrants. Short‐distance migrants generally displayed a correlation with spring temperatures in the breeding locality, a feature less obvious in the long‐distance migrants.

Evidence for the Existence of a High-Latitude White Wagtail (Motacilla alba) Population in the Yamal Peninsula and the Boundaries of Its Distribution

It has been shown that the white wagtail at the northern limit of its range forms a population or a group of populations with a high degree of independence from conditions of illumination (photoperiod) in the Subarctic and southern Arctic. The boundary between the tundra and boreal populations in Yamal lies in the forest-tundra: wagtails of the tundra population nest north of the 68th parallel, and wagtails of the boreal population nest south of the 66th parallel. The zone between these latitudes is inhabited by representatives of both populations, and active hybridization apparently takes place there.

Spacing Patterns and Winter Dominance Relationships among Three Species of Wagtails(Motacilla spp.) in Japan.

Spacing patterns and winter dominance relationships, including tolerance, were studied among three species of wagtails (Motacilla spp.) along the Takano and Kamo rivers in Kyoto City, central Japan from 1981 to 1983. Japanese M. grandis and Grey Wagtails M. cinerea were observed throughout the year throughout the study area, while White (Black-backed) Wagtails M. alba (subspecies M. a. lugens) were observed from October to April in the lower part of the study area, which contained residential areas. The three species occurred in pairs or as solitary birds during the non-breeding season, with the proportion of paired birds (pair ratio) highest in M. grandis, lowest (zero) in M. cinerea, and intermediate in M. a. lugens. All of the social units of M. grandis, 87.1% of M. a. lugens and 70.0% of M. cinerea remained within a particular area for at least one hour (1-hr range) during winter. The 1-hr ranges were separated for conspecific birds, but overlapped among birds of different species. The units holding 1-hr ranges were pairs and solitary birds in both M. grandis (pair ratio = 87.5%) and M. a. lugens (pair ratio = 47.6%), but only solitary birds in M. cinerea. The mean body size of the species concerned was as follows: male M. grandis> male M. a lugens > female M. grandis > female M. a lugens> M. cinerea. A relative dominance relationship prevailed as follows: male M. grandis > female M. grandis > male M. a. lugens > female M. a. lugens > M. cinerea. However, the proportions of non-response of M. grandis toward M. cinerea were higher when M. a. lugens were near M. grandis than when no M. a. lugens were nearby; M. grandis tended to ignore M. cinerea in the presence of M. a. lugens. Primarily the body size, and secondarily the dependent status seem to determine the intersexual and interspecific dominance hierarchy. The difference in microhabitat, and interspecific relationships in dominance and tolerance may enable the three wagtail species to coexist in one area. Territory defendability resulting from such intersexual and interspecific dominance relationships is thought to determine whether a wagtail species occurs in a pair or not during winter.

Migration routes from Lombardy, Northern Italy, to Africa, covered by birds ringed during eighteen years of ringing activity in five Pre-alpine Ornithological stations

Vigorita, V. 2000. Migration routes from Lombardy, Northern Italy, to Africa, covered by birds ringed during eighteen years of ringing activity in five Pre-alpine Ornithological stations. Ostrich 71 (1 & 2): 341. Systematic bird ringing in Lombardy, northern Italy, was started in 1977. In total 661 979 birds of 168 species were ringed in the period 1977–1994. The recoveries were 3 660. The ringed species in five Prealpine Ornithological stations wintering and recovered in Africa, during eighteen years were 14: Anthus trivialis, Anthus pmtensis, Motacilla Java, Motacilla alba. Erithacus rubecula. Phoenicum phoenicurus, Turdus merula. Turdus philomelos, Sylvia borin, Sylvia atricapilla, Ficedula hypoleuca, Sturnus vulgaris, Fnngilla coelebs, Carduelis spinus. Accordingly, with ringing and recoveries data in Lombardy and recoveries data in Africa, we can get some more detailed information on migration routes. A better knowledge of migration routes allows the study of correlation among trends of populations and quality- quantity variation of habitats and meteorological dynamics in Afiica. The collection of data is expected to continue with more standardised methods for field research, data storage and their processing. Detailed migration routes, based on analysis of ringing data, are shown.

Long-term phyto-, ornitho- and ichthyophenological time-series analyses in Estonia

This study analyzes a long-term phenological time series for the impact assessment of climate changes on Estonian nature and for the methodological study of the possible limitations of using phenological time series for climate trend analyses. These limiting factors can influence the results of studies more than the real impact of climate changes, which may have a much smaller numeric value. The 132-year series of the arrival of the skylark (Alauda arvensis) and the white wagtail (Motacilla alba), the 78-year series of the blossoming of the wood anemone (Anemone nemorosa), the bird cherry (Padus racemosa), apple trees (Malus domestica) and lilacs (Syringa vulgaris), and the 44-year series of the spawning of pike (Esox lucius) and bream (Abramis brama) were studied at three selected observation points in Estonia. The study of the phenological time series shows that Estonian springs have, on the basis of the database, advanced 8 days on average over the last 80-year period; the last 40-year period has warmed even faster.

Timing of autumn migration of Pied WagtailsMotacilla alba yarrellii, in northern Britain

Timing of autumn migration of Pied Wagtails<i>Motacilla alba yarrellii</i>, in northern Britain

The phylogenetic relationships of Berthelot's Pipit Anthus berthelotii illustrated by DNA sequence data, with remarks on the genetic distance between Rock and Water Pipits Anthus spinoletta

The phylogenetic relationships of Berthelot's Pipit Anthus berthelotii, which is endemic to three groups of North Atlantic islands, have puzzled ornithologists for more than a century. A total of 1041 base pair cytochrome b mitochondrial DNA sequences from Berthelot's Pipit are compared with homologous sequences from the Tawny Pipit Anthus campestris, Richard's Pipit Anthus novaeseelandiae, the Meadow Pipit Anthus pratensis, the Red‐breasted Pipit Anthus cervinus, the Tree Pipit Anthus trivialis, Rock and Water Pipits Anthus spinoletta and the White Wagtail Motacilla alba. In the resulting phytogeny, the sister taxon of Berthelot's Pipit is unambiguously the Tawny Pipit, with Richard's Pipit forming a deeper branch on the same clade. Sequences of a Danish Rock Pipit and a Swiss Water Pipit support a close relationship between these two species, but more comprehensive studies of intra‐ and interpopulation variation are required before considering their taxonomic ranking. Some preliminary inferences are made regarding phylogenetic tendencies in the genus Anthus.

Can One Use Nested Subset Pattern to Reject the Random Sample Hypothesis? Examples from Boreal Bird Communities

The structure of ecological communities has been widely and intensively debated (Strong et al. 1984, Diamond and Case 1986, Wiens 1989). Null models, for example, have often been used to test whether the species composition of islands or habitat fragments differs from random samples drawn from large areas (see several papers in Strong et al. 1984). The random sample hypothesis states, among other things, that the species-area relationship arises because large areas sample more individuals than small areas and therefore have more species (Connor and McCoy 1979, Haila 1983). The random sample hypothesis predicts, for statistical reasons, that common species are the only to be found on small island, whereas rare species will mainly occur on large islands (Wright 1991). Thus, the probability of finding a species on an island of a certain size depends on its relative abundance in the source area. Patterson and Atmar (1986) developed a method to test if species composition on islands in an shows a nested subset pattern that was different from a random distribution of species. A completely nested subset pattern means that a species found on an island with n species will be found on all islands with n+ 1 species. They went on to describe two different simulation models. Firstly, they used a model in which individual species were drawn at random (without replacement) from a species pool (RANDOMO), such that all species have the same probability to be incorporated in the sample. Secondly, they biased the sample of species with respect to their actual frequencies of occurrence in the archipelago (RANDOM 1), i.e. affording common species a disproportionally high probability to be drawn as compared to rare species. The statistic used to test the distribution pattern is the number of unexpected absences, or holes, in the in the simulation compared with the observed number of holes. An unexpected absence of a species is when a species is found on an island with n species and is missing on an island with n + 1 species, i.e. the number of holes measures the deviation from a completely nested subset pattern. The nested subset pattern has been used to study the composition in granivorous assemblages (Patterson and Brown 1991), the temporal development of species composition (Patterson 1990), as well as the implications of nested subset patterns in conservation biology (Patterson 1987). I used two published studies with suitable raw data, to test whether the bird community in habitat patches in the boreal part of Scandinavia might display a nested subset pattern or not. The first study concerns bird communities on raised peat-bogs in the county of Varmland in Sweden (county S in Bostrom and Nilsson 1983), i.e. a naturally patchy habitat. These authors concluded, based on population density differences, that the bird community on small bogs was not a random sample of the communities on large bogs. The nestedness was tested using the Monte Carlo simulation RANDOM1, devised by Patterson and Atmar (1986). The bird communities on bogs did not show a significant nestedness. The observed number of holes was 645, while the simulated mean number of holes was 694.6 ? 40.2 SD, i.e. the observed value lies 1.23 standard deviations below the simulated (p = 0.11). However, two species that were only found on two small bogs, one each, made up about 15% of all the holes. One of the species (rustic bunting, Emberiza rustic) has its normal distribution range further north and is very rare in the part of Sweden where Bostrom and Nilsson (1983) collected these data. The other species (white wagtail, Motacilla alba) is not really a bird belonging to the bird community of bogs. If these two species were excluded, then the distribution of birds showed a significant nestedness. The observed number of holes (547) was 2.51 standard deviations (p = 0.006) smaller than the simulated mean number (654.8 ? 43.0 SD). Thus, the test of nested pattern seems to be very sensitive to the occurrence of a few rare species on small bogs.

Are Conspicuous Birds Unprofitable Prey? Field Experiments with Hawks and Stuffed Prey Species

-The unprofitable-prey hypothesis predicts that birds of prey, when given a choice, should more often attack a cryptic than a conspicuous bird if conspicuousness is a signal of unprofitability. We tested this prediction by exposing pairs of stuffed birds to migrating birds of prey. In experiment 1, we paired the conspicuous White Wagtail (Motacilla alba) with the cryptic Meadow Pipit (Anthus pratensis). In experiment 2, we paired the conspicuous female Great Spotted Woodpecker (Dendrocopos major) with the cryptic female Blackbird (Turdus merula). Automatic cameras documented attacks by birds of prey, mostly accipiters, on the mounts. The numbers of attacks on wagtails and pipits were similar, whereas Blackbirds were attacked much more often than woodpeckers. Experiment 2 thus supports the prediction of the unprofitable-prey hypothesis. Using photographs of the experimental situation, we examined detectability of mounts by human observers. Wagtails and pipits were equally easy to detect from a distance, but woodpeckers usually were easier to detect than Blackbirds. Thus, wagtails and pipits did not differ in long-distance conspicuousness, which may explain the result of experiment 1. To analyze reasons for unprofitability, we presented flesh from woodpeckers and Blackbirds to captive falcons, but found no evidence that woodpeckers are distasteful. Other explanations for why woodpeckers were rarely attacked are discussed. Received 26 April 1993, accepted 17 August 1993. THE PLUMAGE of diurnal birds exhibits striking variation in color patterns, from dull, cryptic patterns in some species to bright red, yellow, or black-and-white in others. The evolution of conspicuous colors in birds has been debated since Darwin (1871) proposed his theory of sexual selection to explain the bright colors of many male birds. Darwin's idea of selection through female choice of bright males was discussed by Hingston (1933), who argued that contest competition among males primarily selected for conspicuous colors (review in Butcher and Rohwer 1989). Several studies have supported both the idea of female choice (e.g. Hoglund et al. 1990, Norris 1990, Hill 1991) and male-male competion (Roskaft and Rohwer 1987, Rohwer and Roskaft 1989). Avian coloration is also related to risk of predation. Cryptic plumages in birds such as nightjars and female ducks suggest an important role for predation. Conspicuous plumages may be antipredator adaptations as well. Certain brightly colored birds are distasteful to hornets, cats, and people and, therefore, may be aposematic (Cott 1947, Cott and Benson 1970, Gotmark 1994a). Recently, two or three apparently