Mortgage Finance Research Articles

Hukou Status, Housing Tenure Choice and Wealth Accumulation in Urban China

In Chinese cities, migrants with rural hukou, compared to residents with local urban hukou, face more uncertainty, have limited access to mortgage finance, and are less eligible for low-cost housing. A simple model demonstrates that for these reasons, rural- to-urban migrants are less likely to own housing units in cities and as a result accumulate less wealth. Our empirical analysis examines a nationally representative household survey from 2013 and uses mother's hukou status as an instrumental variable. We find that household heads with rural hukou are about 20 percentage points less likely to own housing units in cities than comparable household heads with local urban hukou. Consequently, the average household head with a rural hukou owns 310 thousand yuan less housing wealth and 213 thousand yuan less total wealth than comparable household heads with local urban hukou. The average household head with a rural hukou has 286 thousand yuan less in housing capital gains than comparable household heads with local urban hukou. Moreover, we find that these differences are much larger in the first- and second-tier cities, cities with more stringent hukou regulations, and among younger cohorts.

Challenges Facing Real-Estate Mortgages in the Arabian Gulf Region

Abstract This article intends to present the significance of mortgage financing in emerging markets and explain how mortgage financing affects positively the economies of emerging countries. It will also show the legal foundations of the real-estate mortgage law and the prerequisites for a successful mortgage financing system. This article intends to define the main challenges that some consider a hindrance to the development of the mortgage market in the Arabian Gulf countries. From this perspective, a brief comparative analysis of mortgage financing will focus on varying laws and regulations that apply to real-estate mortgages in the Gulf region. Implications for the development of the mortgage market in Arabian Gulf countries will be based on challenges in the mortgage market.

Analysis of the factors influencing access to mortgage finance in Lagos, Nigeria

Finance is the bedrock of real estate development. Its availability and accessibility are important for a successful investment. In most cases, investors don’t have substantial finance to execute a project; instead, they resort to an external source through mortgage financing. However, there are difficulties in accessing mortgage finance particularly due to borrower’s default, thereby hindering finance accessibility. This study investigates factors determining mortgage finance accessibility for providing real estate projects in Lagos State, Nigeria. The target populations are the Primary Mortgage Institutions and Real Estate Developers in Lagos State. The collected data were analysed using factor analysis and Mann-Whitney U test. The study revealed that income, nature of the occupation, type of collateral, years of the banking relationship, loan duration and loan sector are the major determinants of access to mortgage finance. These factors must be succinctly considered to ensure ease of access, adequate provision and utilisation for real estate development.
 Keywords: Collateral, determinants, finance, investors, mortgage.

MODEL BUYING DECISION AND REPEAT PURCHASE: PRODUCT QUALITY ANALYSIS (Case Study of Bank Permata Syariah Jakarta KPR Financing Customers)

Sharia mortgage financing at PT Bank Permata Syariah Business Unit. Targets and achievements of Sharia KPR financing up to August 2018 there is a high enough gap because of not achieving the target. In addition, the ranking of Bank Permata Syariah which is still far below shows that the contribution of mortgage financing has not been high. This is caused by many factors including the financing process and product quality that still needs to be improved so that it affects the Buying decisions and also the repurchase of Bank Permata Syariah mortgage financing . This study aims to determine the effect of process and product quality on Buying and repurchase decisions. The design of this study was explanatory.The sampling technique in this study was the Bank Permata Syariah customers in the South Tangerang Region and filled out the questionnaire using the accidental sampling method but still fulfilled the specified criteria. The sampling technique is purposive sampling with a total population of 150 Permata Bank customers in the South Tangerang Region. By using the Slovin formula, a sample of 100 customers is obtained, the defined margin of error is 10% or 0.10. Quantitative analysis method with SEM analysis tools and Smart PLS and SPSS tools.

Blockchain and Business Model Innovation: Designing a P2P Mortgage Lending System

This paper explores P2P lending in the context of mortgage financing. While P2P lending has gained considerable traction in the consumer loan segment, it remains absent for the economically and socially important mortgage sector. Following a design research approach (most specifically, Action Design Research), the paper defines a series of questions about how a sound business model would make P2P mortgage lending feasible from a technical and business perspective. In order to provide an initial answer, a model is developed by providing a theoretical explanation and a partial formalization in Business Process Modelling and Notation (BPMN). The business model introduces artificial intelligence, blockchain/smart contracts and Business-Process-as-a-Service (BPaaS) as its main features. A preliminary evaluation of the model’s feasibility and effectiveness is offered, as a way of providing an initial prescriptive theory on a subject (P2P mortgage lending) where academic studies and business applications are basically absent.

Penerapan Akuntansi Murabahah Dan Akuntansi Musyarakah Dalam KPR BTN iB (Studi Kasus Pada Bank BTN Syariah Cabang Malang)

This study aims to analyze the application of murabahah accounting and musyarakah accounting applied by Bank BTN Syariah Branch Malang in home financing product purchase. The method used is qualitative method with primary data source that is to interview to related parties and secondary data source obtained from literature and Financial Report of Bank BTN Syariah Branch of Malang. This research refers to Statement of financial accounting standards (PSAK) which have been issued by Bank Indonesia and has been commonly applied by banks in Indonesia. The conclusions of this study indicate the accounting treatment and implementation in the use of mortgage financing BTN iB according to PSAK and Fatwa National Sharia Board MUI. However, Bank BTN Syariah Branch Malang is not fully in accordance with the National Sharia Board Fatwa MUI and Statement of financial accounting standards (PSAK). There were some points which were not in line such as when there was a purchasing, bank did not buy the productm but only financed it. Other things were not in line were recognition and measurement of down payment, discount and number of account receivables which were presented in financial report. In terms of accounting musyarakah there were some points which were not in line, such as recognition on loss and receivables on profit and loss sharing.Keywords: KPR BTN iB, Murabahah Financing, Musyarakah Financing, PSAK.

IMPLEMENTASI AKAD MURABAHAH PADA PEMBIAYAAN KPR DI BANK TABUNGAN NEGARA SYARIAH PAREPARE

This study discusses the implementation of murabahah contracts on mortgage financing in the Parepare Islamic state savings bank. That the BTN Syariah bank is a unit of conventional Bank BTN which raises doubts about mortgage financing, whether or not it has implemented murabahah contracts in mortgage financing or not. As recommended by the DSN fatwa and Indonesian banks. This study aims to determine the implementation of the murabahah contract on mortgage financing at the Parepare Syariah State Savings Bank.
 The results of this study indicate that: (1) the financing mechanism for mortgages at Bank BTN Syariah Parepare is in accordance with the rules of banks and government, the rules governed by the government are the rules regarding subsidized mortgages stipulated in PermenPUPR Number 21 / PRT / M / 2016 concerning convenience and or assistance in obtaining houses for low income people. PermenPUPR Number 26 / PRT / M / 2016 concerning changes to the ministerial regulations on public works and public housing number 21 / PRT / M / 2016 and PermenPUPR Republic of Indonesia Number 425 / KPTS / M / 2015 concerning limits on house selling prices that can be obtained through credit or financing of prosperous home ownership. (2) Implementation of murabahah contract at BTN Syariah Parepare bank, terms and conditions are in accordance with the principle of murabahah contract, murabahah contract has not implemented well on mortgage products at BTN Syariah Parepare bank due to the existence of murabahah contract elements which are not in accordance with the fatwa of the board national sharia-MUI. The element of the murabahah contract that is not in accordance with the DSN-MUI fatwa is the down payment and rescheduling. The elements of the murabahah contract are in accordance with the DSN-MUI fatwa, namely discounts, settlement of accounts receivable, fines and accelerated repayments.

Covering the private parts: the (re-)nationalisation of housing finance

Is state power or control over financial markets really withering? Most narratives/analyses of financialisation see a growing penetration of private capital into everyday life that runs parallel to the increasing power of private financial capital over state policy. Yet housing finance – mortgages – sits at the centre of banking, and banking sits at the centre of the financial system. Large-scale mortgage markets only function where the state wraps around the banking system to remove maturity risks and to limit excessive credit creation. Partial deregulation in the 1990s and 2000s created a crisis that states resolved by re-nationalising much of mortgage finance. This renewed and overwhelming state presence suggests that financialisation is a state-driven story, and that private financial power, stability and instruments require state support above and beyond contract enforcement and prudential regulation.

Mortgage Selection: Interactive Effects of House Price Appreciation and Mortgage Pricing Components

Research has shown evidence of a link between house price appreciation and the selection of mortgage financing options: Higher appreciation is associated with higher take-up rates for adjustable-rate mortgages relative to fixed-rate mortgages. Research also finds that mortgage interest rates and their underlying components are important determinants of take-up rates among mortgage financing options. In this paper we show that house price appreciation can have important interactive effects with those other determinants of mortgage financing outcomes. We focus on the period from 2000 to 2007, an episode marked by rapid house price appreciation along with a persistent and notable increase in the use of adjustable-rate mortgage financing, including alternative mortgage products. Empirical analysis indicates that higher house price appreciation dampened the estimated effect of the mortgage pricing components on the probabilities of mortgage financing outcomes. The results, which are especially robust for fixed-rate and adjustable-rate mortgages that are fully amortized, are not driven solely by markets with especially high rates of house price appreciation. Moreover, after taking into account the interactive effects with mortgage pricing components, house price appreciation has relatively little additional effect on take-up rates among mortgage financing options.

Black middle-income housing and asset building in Mangaung, South Africa

Asset-building policies are used worldwide to reduce state welfare commitments. In the Global South, including South Africa, asset-based housing development is thought to help reduce poverty. This study investigated asset building and homeownership in a sample of South Africa’s emerging black middle class. Interviews with 244 black middle-class households in Mangaung revealed asset value creation and heavy dependence on mortgage finance. Levels of mortgage default were low, although households with recently secured mortgages struggled to pay them off. We found little evidence that property-owning is helping these households to move out of poverty. Their ability to afford mortgage loans appeared to be directly related to their own efforts and human capital. Very few had considered downsizing as an option, possibly because ownership of a house has social value, for passing on to the next generation. Asset building was still in its early stages and, because these households had been denied equal opportunities and barred from homeownership by the apartheid regime, very few intergenerational transfers had yet occurred.

Competition and Appraisal Inflation

In mortgage debt contracts, real property serves as collateral and the terms of mortgage financing are largely conditional on the certification of collateral value by appraisers. However, overstatement of collateral value is common in the appraisal industry, causing troubles in the mortgage market as observed in the recent crisis. In this paper, we examine whether competition in the appraisal industry affects appraisal bias. We model appraiser behavior given a loan officer’s preference for favorable appraisals (i.e. appraisal values at least as high as the transaction prices). As appraisers cater to loan officers to increase their probability of winning future business, our model predicts more inflated appraisals in more competitive markets. We confirm this prediction using a sample of purchase mortgages originated between 2003-2006 by a large subprime mortgage lender. Our results show that a one standard deviation increase in appraiser competition, measured at the MSA/year level, is associated with a 1.6–3.7 percentage point increase in the share of at-price appraisals. Furthermore, the effect is stronger in areas experiencing high house price growth.

The Policy Challenges and Securitization Implications of Down-Payment Assistance

Despite the resurgence of high loan-to-value ratio lending, saving for a down payment remains a big hurdle holding back would-be home buyers. This hurdle has led down-payment assistance (DPA) to become an important component of mortgage finance for a growing segment of low- and moderate-income first-time home buyers and a source of competitive advantage for state housing finance agencies (HFAs). The explosive growth of DPA and proliferation of lightly regulated DPA providers across the country—now exceeding 2,000—have important implications for policymakers and for MBS issuers and investors. For the former, the key issue is understanding more about whether the presence and form that DPA takes compounds the credit risk of very low down-payment lending, and for the latter, it is the extent to which prepay speeds are affected by various forms of DPA, thereby altering the economics of securitization. This article presents empirical analyses on both of these critical issues.

The Positive Externalities of Chapter 13 “Cramdowns” Could Prevent the Next Foreclosure Crisis

:Revision of Bankruptcy Code 11 U.S.C. § 1322(b)(2) would permit “cramdowns” wherein bankruptcy judges would administer the modification of residential mortgages only when mortgage-lending abuses were most rampant (a real estate bubble). Foreclosure spill-over effects systemically worsened the housing crisis and were not evenly diffused throughout the broader housing market. Throughout 2003–2006, an oversupply of underpriced mortgage finance emanating from lax underwriting standards bid up residential prices. Relaxation of underwriting protocols came about from the mortgage market’s institutional swing from regulated agency securitization (predominantly government-sponsored enterprises “GSEs”) to unregulated securitization (shadow banking). This resulted in an untenable residential-price bubble as synthetically inexpensive credit from investors’ mispricing amplified mortgage demand, while greater mortgage quantity nudged up housing prices. The result was a self-referential cycle of waning residential prices supporting and perpetuating nigh incessant foreclosures: the bubble had burst. Cramdowns would incentivize lenders to be less inclined to loosen underwriting standards, or when done, to include this factor in the risk premium of the cost of credit. Enhancing Chapter 13 with the muscle to alter residential mortgages would ameliorate an institutionally structural issue endemic to the past (and upcoming?) foreclosure crisis.

Are Mortgage Regulations Affecting Entrepreneurship?

I show that rules designed to reduce high debt-to-income mortgage lending restrict self-employed households’ access to credit and reduce entrepreneurship. I identify the effects of a recent policy by using local variation in exposure to banks subject to the regulation. The policy reduced mortgage credit in high self-employment census tracts and banks receiving exemptions expanded market share in these areas. Growth in self-employment and new small business employment was lower in areas where more banks were affected. I estimate that the policy reduced self-employment by around 2 per cent and new small business employment by at least 3 per cent. This unintended effect on entrepreneurship demonstrates that mortgage finance is important for early stage businesses, and is an additional cost to be taken into account when evaluating mortgage policy.

Creating a Development Bank to Finance Affordable Housing in South Africa is a Timely Catalyst to Address Demand and Supply Challenges

The twin problems of affordability and accessibility that hamper the progress of housing in our country need to be addressed on a sustainable basis and the state needs to take on the role as a facilitator to create the enabling environment to encourage greater private sector participation. As a consequence, it is quite opportune to establish the Human Settlements Development Bank (HSDB). The mortgage finance affordability challenge is also attributable to key essential drivers, namely; house price index, disposable income, and the mortgage interest rates.

Competition and Appraisal Inflation

In mortgage debt contracts, real property serves as collateral and the terms of mortgage financing are largely conditional on the certification of collateral value by appraisers. However, overstatement of collateral value is common in the appraisal industry, causing troubles in the mortgage market as observed in the recent crisis. In this paper, we examine whether competition in the appraisal industry affects appraisal bias. We model appraiser behavior given a loan officer's preference for favorable appraisals (i.e. appraisal values at least as high as the transaction prices). As appraisers cater to loan officers to increase their probability of winning future business, our model predicts more inflated appraisals in more competitive markets. We confirm this prediction using a sample of purchase mortgages originated between 2003-2006 by a large subprime mortgage lender. Our results show that a one standard deviation increase in appraiser competition, measured at the MSA/year level, is associated with a 1.6-3.7 percentage point increase in the share of at-price appraisals. Furthermore, the effect is stronger in areas experiencing high house price growth.

Peas in a Pod? Comparing the U.S. and Danish Mortgage Finance Systems

Like the United States, Denmark relies heavily on capital markets for funding residential mortgages, and its covered bond market bears a number of similarities to U.S. agency securitization. This article describes the key features of the Danish mortgage finance system and compares and contrasts them with those of the U.S. system. In addition, it highlights characteristics of the Danish model that may be of interest as the United States considers further mortgage finance reform. In particular, the Danish system includes features that mitigate refinancing frictions during periods of falling home prices, and it offers borrowers the option to repurchase their mortgage at the market price, mitigating “lock-in” effects. Danish mortgage intermediaries also have high capital ratios relative to their risk exposures, a characteristic that contributes to the stability of the Danish market.

Introduction to Special Issue: The Appropriate Role of Government in U.S. Mortgage Markets

The U.S. mortgage finance system was one of the focal points of the 2007-08 financial crisis, yet legislative decisions about the appropriate role of the federal government in the system remain unsettled. Policy deliberations have focused on Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac—the two enormous government-sponsored enterprises that were placed into federal conservatorship in September 2008. The two GSEs have long been the centerpieces of a mortgage finance system that relies on capital market financing of U.S. residential mortgages. This volume contains eight articles that touch on several key components of housing finance reform. We hope that the insights offered here will assist legislative efforts aimed at promoting a more efficient, equitable, and financially sound mortgage system in the future.

The Global Financial Crisis and neighborhood decline

The Global Financial Crisis and neighborhood decline

Macroeconomic Determinants and Mortgage Debt Accumulation: Evidence from Malaysia

The statistics of the household debt in Malaysia is among the highest in the ASEAN region with the biggest portion of the household debt goes to pay off the mortgage debt. As accommodation is one of the basic needs required by all households regardless of the price offered, concerns are given to the household affordability to live in a decent economy. The escalating trend of household debts related to mortgage is due to the increase in house prices, fluctuation in interest rates and speculative activities taken by investors. Thus, the aim of the study is to examine the relationship of principal drivers on mortgage debt accumulation using macroeconomic determinants. The macroeconomic determinants were represented by house price index (HPI), interest rate (IR), gross domestic product (GDP) and living cost (LC). The data set was analyzed between the period of 2006 till 2016 on a quarterly basis. Multiple regression analysis was applied to test the statistical relationship between the macroeconomic determinants and the mortgage debt. Several diagnostic tests also being conducted to ensure that the proposed model in this study adequately describes the time series under consideration. The empirical findings revealed that the accumulation of mortgage debt in Malaysia is driven primarily by three key factors: house price index, interest rate, and living cost. The living cost has been identified as the most significant factor that leads to high accumulation of mortgage debt in Malaysia. However, income (which is represented by GDP) does not give any significant impact towards the accumulation of mortgage debt. This implies that capital appreciation in the property market has made households stretch out their mortgage financing to own a house to fulfill their basic needs; without considering their level of income. The implication of this study is critical to deliberate for further analysis as easy access to mortgage debt may lead to default or sub-prime crisis. By understanding the principal macroeconomic drivers that influence the accumulation of mortgage debt, this would contribute to the body of knowledge, and subsequently the legislator who can take the necessary actions to mitigate the issues of escalating prices in the property market, and how best to balance between the macroeconomic policy and the related policies designed to stabilize the housing market, and to contain the mortgage debt from upward bubbling.