Imbrasia Belina Research Articles

Partial Substitution of Fishmeal with Mopane Worm Meal in Dusky Kob Fingerling (Argyrosomus japonicus) Diets: Feed Utilization, Digestive Enzyme Activity, Blood Parameters, and Growth Performance

The use of protein-rich mopane worm meal (MPWM) in marine fish diets has the potential to reduce the overall demand for fishmeal (FM) and thus promote economically and ecologically sustainable dusky kob aquaculture. Therefore, this study investigated the effect of graded levels of MPWM on feed and nutrient utilization, digestive enzymes, blood parameters, and growth performance in dusky kob fingerlings (Argyrosomus japonicus, Temminck and Schlegel, 1843) over a 7-week feeding trial. Five isonitrogenous and isoenergetic commercial dusky kob diets were formulated by substituting 0 (MPWM0), 3 (MPWM3), 6 (MPWM6), 9 (MPWM9), and 18% (MPWM18) of FM with MPWM and offered at 2.8% of fish body weight. Two-thousand fingerlings (average weight 15.68 ± 0.25 g) were evenly distributed into 20 experimental tanks of a recirculating aquaculture system. Weight measurements were taken weekly, while blood and intestinal samples were taken at the end of the experiment. The inclusion of MPWM quadratically influenced (y = 39.25 (±1.27) + 0.89 (±0.36)x − 0.04 (0.02) x2; R2 = 0.23; p = 0.03) overall feed intake. Overall weight gain and specific growth rate (SGR) linearly increased while overall feed conversion ratio (FCR) linearly declined with MPWM inclusion levels. Substituting FM with MPWM did not alter (p > 0.05) digestive enzyme activities and haematological parameters. Among the serum biochemical components measured, only urea increased linearly in response to MPWM levels, while no trends were observed for the other components. It was concluded that replacing 11.13% of FM with MPWM in commercial dusky kob diet formulations does not compromise feed intake, feed utilization efficiency, growth rate, and physiological status of juvenile dusky kob.

Mopane Worm (Gonimbrasia belina Westwood) Meal as a Potential Protein Source for Sustainable Quail Production: A Review

Fast-growing and highly adaptable avian birds such as quail (Coturnix coturnix) possess great potential to meet the growing demand for animal protein by the rapidly increasing human population, and would contribute immensely to global food production and nutritional security. However, overreliance on conventional protein sources such as fish and soybean meals during the formulation of quail diets is economically and environmentally unsustainable. Alternatively, insect-based protein sources such as Gonimbrasia belina, commonly known as mopane worm (MW), can be used to increase quail production due to their high biological value and low feed-food competition. Indeed, MW is highly nutritious, with an average protein content of 55% and a well-balanced amino acid profile. Thus, its incorporation in quail diets could provide great potential to alleviate nutritional deficiencies in quail production and allow for their sustainable intensification. However, there are limited studies on the effect of partial or complete replacement of conventional protein sources with mopane worm meal (MWM) in quail diets. This paper reviews the nutritional profile and use of the MW as a protein source, as well as its potential future prospects in poultry diets. Finally, we postulate that mass production of this insect-based protein source and its sustainability would be an inventive strategy to develop a profitable quail business.

Sensitisation to Imbrasia belina (mopane worm) and other local allergens in rural Gwanda district of Zimbabwe

BackgroundThe prevalence of allergic diseases is increasing in Zimbabwe and the data relate to local as well as exotic allergen sources. As entomophagy, the practice of eating insects, is a recognised source of local allergens, we sought to measure the prevalence of and risk factors for sensitisation to Imbrasia belina (mopane worm), a popular edible insect. This was investigated alongside other locally relevant allergens in a rural community in Gwanda district, south of Zimbabwe.MethodsA cross sectional study was conducted among 496 adults and children aged 10 years and above in Gwanda district, a mopane worm harvesting area in Zimbabwe. Data on individual characteristics and mopane worm exposure factors were collected using questionnaires. Sensitivity to allergens was assessed by performing skin prick tests at a local clinic using 10 different commercial allergen extracts (Stallergenes, France) and in-house extracts of mopane worm (Imbrasia belina) and mopane leaves (Colophospermum mopane). Data were analysed using Stata version 13 software.ResultsThe prevalence of sensitisation to at least one allergen was 31.17% (n = 144). The prevalence of atopy was higher in adults (33.33%) than in children (23.53%) (p = 0.059). The commonest inhalant allergen sources were mopane worm (14.29%), Tyrophagus putrescentiae (14.29%), mopane leaves (13.42%), Alternaria alternata (6.49%) and Dermatophagoides pteronyssinus (6.49%). Polysensitisation was demonstrated in the study population and of the 108 participants (75%) who were sensitised to two or more allergens, 66 (61%) were women. Sensitisation to mopane worm and mopane leaves often clustered with Tyrophagus putrescentiae amongst adults. Adjusted logistic regression analyses between mopane worm sensitisation and self-reported exposure variables showed that sensitisation was more likely amongst mopane worm harvesters (OR = 1.92, 95%CI = 0.77–4.79), those who cooked or roasted mopane worms during harvesting (OR = 2.69, 95%CI = 0.78–9.31) and harvesting without personal protective equipment (PPE) (OR = 2.12, 95%CI = 0.83–5.44) compared to non-harvesters.ConclusionAtopic sensitization was common in this mopane worm harvesting community in Gwanda district of Zimbabwe. There was frequent co-sensitisation of mopane worm and mopane leaves with Tyrophagus putrescentiae in children and adults. It is important to determine the clinical relevance of our findings, particularly relating to mopane worm sensitisation.

Proximate, Physicochemical, Techno-Functional and Antioxidant Properties of Three Edible Insect (Gonimbrasia belina, Hermetia illucens and Macrotermes subhylanus) Flours.

In this study, edible insect flours from Gonimbrasia belina (Mashonzha), Hermetia illucens (black soldier fly larvae) and Macrotermes subhylanus (Madzhulu) were prepared and assessed in terms of proximal, physicochemical, techno-functional and antioxidant properties. The crude protein of the edible insect flours varied between 34.90–52.74%. The crude fat of the insect flours differed significantly (p < 0.05), with H. illucens (27.93%) having the highest crude fat. G. belina was lighter (L*) and yellower (+b*) compared to H. illucens and M. subhylanus, and there was no significant difference (p > 0.05) in the redness (+a*) of the edible insect flours. There were no significant differences (p > 0.05) in foam capacity and foam stability of all three edible insect flours. Moreover, the antioxidant activity against the DPPH radical was low for H. illucens (3.63%), with M. subhylanus (55.37%) exhibiting the highest DPPH radical. Principal component analysis (PCA) was applied to the techno-functional properties and antioxidant indices of the edible insect flours. PC1 accounted for 51.39% of the total variability, while component 2 accounted for 24.71%. In terms of PC1, the FS, OBC and FC were responsible for the major differences in the edible insect flours. The findings revealed that edible insect flours are a good source of antioxidants and can be used as an alternative protein source and a potential novel food additive due to their techno-functional qualities.

The mopane worm (Gonimbrasia belina Westwood): a review of its biology, ecology and utilisation in Zimbabwe

The study was aimed at reviewing literature related to traditional mopane production as well as exploring the potential for diapause termination to allow for continuous year-round production. Larvae of mopane worms (Gonimbrasia belina) are highly nutritious and popular food for many people in Southern Africa. Improved and sustained supplies of mopane worms in urban and rural areas can potentially address food and nutrition security problems of the mopane worm harvesters and producers financially. This also has the added advantage of improving people’s access to high-protein food. However, harvesting ofG. belina larvae takes place during a short period (main harvesting period is from November to December and a smaller second harvest April-May). In addition, the availability ofG. belina is a function of parasitism, time of the year, and amount of rainfall, making the production not only seasonal but also erratic and unreliable. The absence of a regulatory and monitoring policy framework that protectsG. belina from over harvesting and over exploitation is also a major concern. These problems, coupled with the seasonal nature of the production hinders all year round harvesting and supply. Findings from this study reveal that the literature is outdated, scant and highlights the need for more research to be conducted on the species. Furthermore, the findings suggest that mopane worms are a significant source of protein for vulnerable population groups, capable of addressing their nutritional protein and livelihood needs. To this end, the paper highlights opportunities for further research and the optimisation of production processes.

A Review and Meta-analysis of the Effects of Replacing Fishmeal with Insect Meals on Growth of Tilapias and Sharptooth Catfish

The high cost of fish feed has affected the culturing of tilapias and sharptooth catfish in Africa. However, Africa is well endowed with terrestrial insects that can potentially replace fishmeal in the diets of fish. In this paper, the nutritional index, availability, and cost of selected insect meals are compared. The SOLVER function in Excel was used to formulate least-cost diets of Musca domestica, Gryllotalpa africana, Schistocerca gregaria, Macrotermes natalensis, and Gonimbrasia belina. The crude protein levels of all the insects were above 50% and met the requirements of both fish species. The essential amino acid index (EAAI) was highest in M. domestica (3.2613). Except for M. natalensis, all the insect meals met the fat requirements for tilapias and sharptooth catfish. The most available insects were S. gregaria and M. domestica. Feed value was highest in fishmeal (15.62) followed by M. domestica (15.52). A meta-analysis of the effects of replacing fishmeal with insect meal on growth performance of tilapias and sharptooth catfish was also carried out. The effect summary for the specific growth rate was significant whereas the effect summary for the food conversion ratio was not significant. The relationship between fishmeal replacement levels and response ratio showed wide scatter. It was thus not possible to determine the optimum replacement level. Musca domestica is recommended in the replacement of fishmeal.

The Role of Edible Insects in Rural Livelihoods, and Identified Challenges in Vhembe District, Limpopo, South Africa.

Edible insects are an important natural commodity in rural areas that is used for household consumption and to generate income through trade. As a result, edible-insect trading is a profitable business that provides employment and improves the livelihoods of impoverished rural people. This study aimed at determining the socioeconomic benefits of and reasons for trading insects, and to assess if edible insects are included in economic development strategies in the Vhembe district of Limpopo province, South Africa. We conducted 72 questionnaire interviews targeting traders in 5 towns across the district. Five insect groups belonging to four insect orders are traded in informal markets of the district. Mopane worms (Gonimbrasia belina) were the most traded (42%) edible insects. Unemployment (45%) and the demand for edible insects (34%) were the major reasons for trading insects. Insect trading has numerous benefits; however, the provision of income (60%) and financial support (35%) were stated as the primary benefits. Despite several benefits associated with trading in insects, there are many challenges such as insect spoilage and a decline in the availability of edible insects in the wild. Edible insects play an important role in food security and the rural economy by generating employment opportunities for unemployed traders. Trading in insects is a traditional practice based on indigenous knowledge, which has persisted as an economic practice that improves rural livelihoods by reducing poverty and increases the human dignity of rural citizens. Only four governmental organisations in Limpopo included edible insects in economic development strategies. Trading insects is primarily an informal activity. The government could stimulate the activity and broaden and deepen the community benefits by providing infrastructure, access to harvest areas, financial support, and business training as part of a rural empowerment strategy to end hunger and poverty while creating employment opportunities in rural areas.

The Occurrence and Characteristics of Imbrasia belina (Westwood, 1849) in the Subtropical Region of KwaZulu-Natal Province, South Africa

Mopane worm is the edible larva of Imbrasia (Gonimbrasia) belina (Westwood, 1894), a species of emperor moth that is generally found in central and southern African tropical regions. Both over-harvesting of larvae and the destruction of the mopane woodlands are threatening its biodiversity. An insect with a description matching that of I. belina was observed in the northern coastal region of KwaZulu-Natal, a subtropical biota. The aim of this study was to gain insight into the potential of the northern coastal region of KwaZulu-Natal as a sanctuary for I. belina. The presence of I. belina in the subtropical biota of the coastal region of KwaZulu-Natal was confirmed through mitochondrion CO1 gene sequences, this being so far its southernmost occurrence. Field surveys revealed the occurrence of four morphologically distinct variants within the uMkhanyakude District, inclusive of the protected iSimangaliso Wetland Park and Hluhluwe Game Reserve from the beginning of September to early November as do most of the populations in the mopane woodlands but differs from them by having one outbreak per season instead of two. Imbrasia belina is polyphagous and feeds off hosts including marula (Sclerocarya birrea [(A. Rich.) Hochst.] [Anacardiaceae]) and seven other tree species. There is therefore scope to use the northern KwaZulu-Natal coastal region as a sanctuary for biodiversity conservation of I. belina. There are initiatives to cultivate marula for its fruit in the region, which further increases the potential of the area as a sanctuary for I. belina by farming marula for both its fruit and I. belina. The protected nature reserves present in the region will ensure areas of controlled use by humans.

Determination of furanic compounds in Mopane worms, corn, and peanuts using headspace solid-phase microextraction with gas chromatography-flame ionisation detector

A headspace-solid phase microextraction - gas chromatography-flame ionisation detector (HS-SPME-GC/FID) method was developed for the simultaneous determination of furan, 2-methylfuran and 2-furaldehyde in thermally processed Mopane worms, corn, and peanuts. The optimal HS-SPME conditions with polydimethylsiloxane/carboxen/divinylbenzene (PDMS/CAR/DVB) fiber were 30 °C, 40 min and 600 rpm stirring speed. The recoveries, detection and quantification limits for the analytes in food samples were 67–106%, 0.54–3.5 µg kg−1, and 1.8–12 µg kg−1, respectively. These results showed that the developed method was accurate, reproducible, and sensitive for the determination of furan, 2-methylfuran and 2-furaldehyde in complex food matrices with limited interference from other components. The optimised analytical method was applied for monitoring the presence of the furanic compounds in heat-processed South African foods. Although 2-furaldehyde was not detected in food samples, the maximum concentrations of 24 and 95 µg kg−1 were found for furan and 2-methylfuran, respectively.

Diversity, Host Plants and Potential Distribution of Edible Saturniid Caterpillars in Kenya.

The promotion of edible insects, including saturniid caterpillars as potential food source is widely gaining momentum. They are adequately rich in nutrients such as proteins, amino acids, fatty acids, and micronutrients. Despite saturniids being a traditional food source with economic benefits, information on their diversity, host plants and their potential distribution in Africa are lacking, which this study seeks to address. Edible saturniids and their host plants were characterized using specific primers (LepF1/LepR1 and 3F_KIM_F/1R_KIM_R, respectively). Maximum entropy (MaxENT) and GARP (genetic algorithm for ruleset production) models were used to characterize the potential distribution of commonly consumed saturniids under current and future climate scenarios. Seven species of saturniids were recorded from 11 host plants in Kenya: Gonimbrasia zambesina, Gonimbrasia krucki, Bunaea alcinoe, Gonimbrasia cocaulti, Gonimbrasia belina, Gynanisa nigra and Cirina forda. Two morphotypes of G. zambesina and B. alcinoe were recorded. These saturniid caterpillars occur twice a year except for G. cocaulti. Predictive models revealed that tropical and subtropical regions were potentially suitable for B. alcinoe and C. forda. The information generated from this study would be important to guide conservation efforts and their sustainable utilization as food in Africa.

Effect of dietary graded levels of Imbrasia belina on the chemical composition and fatty acid profile of meat from broiler chickens

The effect of dietary graded inclusion levels of Imbrasia belina worm meal on meat chemical composition and fatty acid profile of broiler chicken meat was evaluated. A total of 360 chicks were randomly allocated to four dietary treatments, with each treatment group replicated 6 times (n = 15/replicate). The inclusion levels of the I. belina worm meal in the treatments were 0% control = T1, T2 = 4%, T3 = 8% and 12%. A three-phase feeding program of starter (0-14d), grower (15-28d), and finisher (29-35d) was employed for the study. The results showed that crude protein content of breast meat was higher (P < 0.05) in dietary treatments than control, whereas crude fat content of thigh meat was higher (P < 0.05) than in breast meat. The fatty acid composition of breast meat myristic and myristoleic acid levels were significantly reduced (P < 0.05) in treatment groups than the control, whereas the levels of linoleic acid, ⅀PUFA, ⅀PUFA/SFA, ⅀PUFA: MUFA, ⅀(n-6) in thigh meat decreased significantly (P < 0.05) in treatment groups than control. The ⅀(n-3) and atherogenic index in the thigh meat increased significantly (P < 0.05) with incremental levels of I. belina meal. In conclusion, I. belina meal improved the protein content of breast meat and reduced levels of some fatty acids.

A feasibility study to assess Imbrasia belina (mopane worm) sensitisation and related respiratory health outcomes in a rural community in Gwanda district, Zimbabwe

BackgroundAllergic diseases are considered to be some of the fastest growing chronic conditions in Africa. Of concern is the paucity of knowledge about the local environment and its role in allergic disease development. In response to this, we explored whether Imbrasia belina, a popular indigenous edible insect commonly known as mopane worm, is a potential allergen of clinical and public health significance in Zimbabwe. This study was intended to assess the plausibility and feasibility of this hypothesis with a view to evaluate the insect’s health impact in a larger study.MethodsThe study participants included male and female villagers aged 10 years and above in Gwanda district, Zimbabwe. Eligible participants who completed the household questionnaire were referred to the local clinic for skin prick tests and to measure lung function and allergic airway inflammation. Allergen sensitisation patterns were evaluated using 10 different inhalant allergen extracts including an in-house preparation of mopane worm. Lung function was measured with a Koko Legend spirometer, and fractional exhaled nitric oxide levels (FeNO) (NIOX VERO) were measured in participants with at least one abnormal spirometric parameter. Data was analysed using Stata version 13 software.ResultsOf the 46 eligible participants that completed the household questionnaire, 17 went to the clinic giving a response rate of 37%. The majority who completed the questionnaire were adults (91%) and the children (9%) were all female. The prevalence of sensitisation to Imbrasia belina was 50%, and the prevalence ranged from 22 to 72% for the other allergens including cockroach, mosquito and house dust mites. The data collection tools were safe and well tolerated by participants with no adverse events reported. Self-reported respiratory symptoms, abnormal lung function and elevated FeNO were recorded amongst participants sensitised to mopane worm.ConclusionPre-defined feasibility criteria were met with the exception of a lower than expected response rate for clinic data collection in this pilot study. For the main study, modifying the sampling strategy and applying more consistent community engagement will improve the response rates.

Indigenous Knowledge about Consumption of Edible Insects in South Africa.

Simple SummaryEdible insects are a natural resource rich in protein, fats, vitamins, amino acids, and minerals such as zinc and iron. Consumption of insects is a traditional practice in many African countries. Edible insects are consumed for their nutritional value and play an essential role in human nutrition across Africa. We conducted questionnaires intending to document indigenous knowledge regarding the consumption of insects, and collection and preparation methods used by rural people in Limpopo and KwaZulu-Natal (KZN), provinces of South Africa. We found that most people still consume insects in Limpopo while fewer people do so in KZN. In KZN, respondents cited that the decline in entomophagy might be caused by the adoption of western diets, discomfort associated with eating insects, and the decline in the availability of insects from the wild. Mopane worms and termites were the most preferred insects in Limpopo and KwaZulu-Natal, respectively. Edible insects contribute to human nutrition and play an important role in improving the livelihoods of people in rural areas of South Africa. As a result, people should be encouraged to include edible insects in their daily diets.Consumption of edible insects is an indigenous practice that has played an essential role in human nutrition across Africa. The traditional use of insects forms an important part of food culture in Africa, and insects are consumed either as a delicacy, emergency, or staple source of food. However, indigenous knowledge about insect consumption is being lost because recent generations have adopted western methods and paid less attention to traditional practices. We conducted 500 questionnaires in five local municipalities in Kwazulu-Natal (KZN), and 122 questionnaires in four local municipalities in Vhembe district in Limpopo, South Africa, to document indigenous knowledge about edible insects’ consumption, collection, and preparation methods used in Limpopo and KZN. Eight insect species belonging to five insect orders were used as food in Limpopo and KZN, with mopane worms (94%) and termites (70%) being the most preferred species by respondents in Limpopo and KZN, respectively. Ninety-five percent of the respondents occasionally consumed insects in Limpopo, while only 28% did so in KZN. Nutritional benefits and tradition were the main reasons for consuming insects. Edible insects are a nutritious diet and play an important role in people’s livelihoods in rural areas. However, there was a notable decline in entomophagy, particularly in KZN. The decline may be related to occidental acculturation, discomfort associated with eating insects, and declining insect availability. To promote entomophagy, the authorities should encourage people to include edible insects in their diets because of their nutritional value. In addition, edible insect flour should be incorporated in food products such as biscuits, bread, energy bars, cereal, and cookies to promote acceptability.

Effect of Imbrasia belina meal on growth performance, quality characteristics and sensory attributes of broiler chicken meat

The study aimed to evaluate the effect of dietary graded levels of Imbrasia belina at 0%, 4%, 8% and 12% of broiler diets on meat quality and sensory attributes. A total of 360 one-day-old broiler chicks, were fed graded I. belina diets and slaughtered on day 35. Body weight (BW), Average Daily Gain (ADG), Feed Intake (FI) and Feed Conversion Ratio (FCR) were recorded. Breast muscles were evaluated for ultimate pH, meat colour (L* (lightness), a*(redness), b*(yellowness), tenderness, cooking loss. Forty consumer panellists evaluated sensory attributes. On day 28, the ADG in birds fed IB4 (88.06 g) and control (80.09 g) were statistically similar. On day 28 and 35 FI of broiler chickens fed control (147.47 g; 178.45 g) was the highest. The highest values for L* were observed in IB1, but not significantly different (p > .05) from IB3 and IB4. For redness, a* values were highest in IB3 and lowest in IB1. Lightness, yellowness, pH24 and Hue showed a quadratic response to increasing levels of IB meal. The shear force values were highest in IB1 (11.27), but not significantly different (p > .05) from IB3 (9.97) and IB4 (9.85). However, the tenderness scores were observed to be highest from IB3 (7.00). The highest acceptability scores of the breast meat were from IB2 (7.65). In conclusion, adding graded levels of I. belina meal up to 12% into diets of broilers had a positive effect on growth performance, meat quality and sensory attributes. Highlights Dietary inclusion levels of I. belina meal increased body weight gains in dietary treatment groups. The shear force in all dietary treatment groups decreased compared to the control. The tenderness of breast meat was found to be significantly influenced by the dietary treatment

Effect of graded levels of Imbrasia belina meal on blood lipid profile, bone morphometric and mineral content of broiler chickens

The effect of increasing dietary levels of Imbrasia belina worm meal on blood lipid profile, bone morphometric and mineral content in Arbor acres broiler chicks were assessed. A total of 360-day old chicks were randomly allocated to 4 dietary treatments, with each treatment group replicated 6 times (n = 15/replicate). The inclusion levels of the I. belina worm meal in the diets were 0 % (Treatment 1= control), 4 % (Treatment 2), 8 % (Treatment 3) and 12 % (Treatment 4). A 3-phase feeding program of starter (0−14d), grower (15−28d), and finisher (29−35d) was employed for the study. Total cholesterol (TC), triglycerides (TGL), high density lipoprotein (HDL), low density lipoprotein (LDL), bone morphometrics and mineral content were recorded at the end of study. There was no significant difference of total cholesterol (CHOL), high-density lipoprotein (HDL) and low-density lipoprotein (LDL) concentration in all the treatments. However, significant concentrations were observed in triglycerides (TGL) and T3 showed highest levels compared to other treatments, at 35 days of age. The dietary inclusion levels of Imbrasia belina had no effect on femur weight, width, relative bone density, and bone breaking strength. However, the significant difference was observed on femur length, robusticity index and ash percentage. Also, broiler chickens fed T1 (6.62 g/100 g, 15.23 g/100 g dry matter) had the highest femur Ca and P content. Femur Z content of broilers fed T4 (24.08 mg/100 g dry matter) was highest. The correlation analyses showed significant moderate relationships between ash and femur weight, but however significant positive relationships with calcium, magnesium, manganese and zinc. More so, the correlation between femur strength and calcium and phosphorous was significant positive with a higher magnitude. The result of this study suggests that I. belina meal up to 12 % can be effectively utilized in broiler diets without any adverse effect on and bone mineral properties.

Microbiological quality of different dried insects sold at Thohoyandou open market, South Africa

Edible insects have long been consumed as part of the diet of many Asian, African and South American cultures. The study sought to determine the microbial quality of dried insects (mopane worms, termites and stink bugs) sold around Thohoyandou markets, South Africa. For the study, 45 samples of dried mopane worms, termites and stink bugs were purchased from street vendors. About fifteen samples for each dried set of insects were randomly purchased and subjected to microbial analyses such as coliforms, Escherichia coli, Salmonella spp., Staphylococcus aureus, total plate count, yeasts and moulds count. The results revealed that street vendors were not following good standards of food safety and hygiene. They need training and awareness on how to handle the food products sold at the open market. During the study, we found that the mopane worms had the highest coliforms count of 1.9964±0.02 log10 CFU/g. Termites had the highest E. coli, S. aureus and total plate count of 1.9907±0.05, 2.2562±0.02 and 6.3564±1.10 log10 CFU/ g. Termites and stink bugs had the highest amount of Salmonella spp. (1.9827±0.03 log10 CFU/g). Stink bugs had the highest yeast and mould count ranging from 1.9804±0.14 to 1.9491±0.56 log10 CFU/g as compared to other insects. The outcome of this study will be used to teach vendors about good food safety and hygiene measures. The study results are also useful in determining whether these edible insects sold at the market are microbiologically safe for human consumption.

Growth performance, serum biochemistry and meat quality traits of Jumbo quails fed with mopane worm (Imbrasia belina) meal-containing diets

Alternative protein sources such as mopane worm (Imbrasia belina) meal (MWM) are essential for sustainable poultry production. To date, no studies have attempted to investigate the effect of replacing soybean products with MWM in Jumbo quail diets. Thus, this study was designed to investigate the optimum inclusion level of MWM in place of soybean products on feed intake, physiological and meat quality responses of Jumbo quails. A total of 384 two-week-old mixed-gender quails (71.2 ± 5.40 g live-weight) were allotted to four isoproteic and isocaloric dietary treatments formulated by replacing soybean products with MWM at 0 (MWM0), 50 (MWM5), 100 (MWM10), and 150 (MWM15) g/kg. Neither linear nor quadratic effects (P > 0.05) were observed for feed intake, physiological responses, carcass traits and internal organs except for large intestines, which linearly decreased (P < 0.05) with MWM levels. There were significant quadratic trends for meat redness (a*), yellowness (b*) and chroma values in response to MWM levels. No dietary influences (P > 0.05) were observed on feed intake, physiological responses, internal organ weights, and carcass and meat quality parameters, except on b*, chroma and shear force. Diets MWM5 and MWM10 promoted higher (P < 0.05) b* and chroma values than MWM0. Whereas diet MWM5 promoted the highest (P < 0.05) shear force (2.39 N) than diets MWM0 and MWM10. We concluded that MWM has the potential to replace soybean products in quail diets without compromising their performance, health and meat quality. An optimum MWM inclusion level could not be determined suggesting that higher levels of MWM should be further investigated.

Dependency of rural communities on non-timber forest products in the dry lands of southern Africa: A case of Mukwe Constituency, Kavango East Region, Namibia

This paper examines the relationship between socio-economic and demographic factors and Non-Timber Forest Products (NTFPs) dependency among the rural communities of the Mukwe Constituency, Kavango East Region, Namibia. The study employed interviews of households using semi-structured questionnaires and personal observations during July 2019 covering 102 respondents. The data was analyzed using descriptive statistics and the Chi-Square (X2) to test the association between socio-economic and demographic factors with NTFPs dependency. Results showed that wild-fruits, mushroom, honey-bees, mopane worms, insects, medicinal plants, wild meat, ropes, reeds, thatching grasses and devil's claw were the NTFPs prevalent in the study area. The results further showed that 71 % of the respondents were reliant on NTFPs for their diverse livelihoods. The Chi-square revealed no significant association between age, gender, marital status, number of people in the households and NTFPs dependency (P>0.05). However, a significant association was found between NTFPs reliance and occupation, number of years in the village, number of people employed in the household, highest qualification and employment status (P<0.05). The intra-community differentiation in the reliance on NTFPs, as revealed in this study, enables more effective targeting of forest management interventions and informs efforts to reconcile the goals of poverty reduction and sustainable forest management in Namibia and other countries with similar socio-economic and environmental conditions.

Effects of Climatic Variability and Non-Climatic Factors on Mopane Worms’ (Gonimbrasia Belina) Distribution and Livelihood Options in North Central Namibia

Mopane worms (Gonimbrasia belina) are an important source of food and income for households in Northern Namibia. However, their access and availability in many areas have declined, mainly due to climate change and human activities. This has affected many households&amp;rsquo; livelihoods, making them vulnerable to poverty and food insecurity. With these factors in mind, this study sought to identify the extent to which the availability and distribution of mopane worms are influenced in the Tsandi and Okahao constituencies. The study used structured questionnaires to collect information from households in the study area, to interview key informants, and to carry out group discussions. A total of 70 households and 6 key informants were interviewed, along with 4 focus group discussions that were carried out to elicit perceptions, and to obtain views on the availability of mopane worms, and possible causes of the decline in the study area. Data were analysed using descriptive statistics, while GIS was used to determine trends in vegetation cover, temperature and rainfall in the area. The rainfall trend indicates variability, with a generally declining trend. A slight increase in temperature has been observed too. Vegetation showed a browning trend in the study area, indicating declining habitats of mopane worms. The results have indicated that more women depend on mopane worms for survival, mainly as a source of income. Thus the decline in their availability greatly affects their food sources and their income diversification opportunities. Trading was found to be an important form of employment for the unemployed rural people, but with the potential to generate higher income levels that can improve their livelihoods. Moreover, despite the climatic factors, human activities seemed to indicate a greater influence on the availability of mopane worms, due to activities such as overharvesting, land clearing for agriculture and household use/fencing. Thus, there is a greater need to control the harvesting of mopane worms and to control tree cutting activities in order to reduce the impacts of climatic and non-climatic factors on their availability.

Diversification of mopane caterpillars (Gonimbrasia belina) edible forms for improved livelihoods and food security

Malnutrition is a major health problem especially in many developing nations. Ironically, communities that suffer from undernourishment especially in rural areas often have plenty of nutritious wild foods. However, stigma against such foods, limited seasonal availability, limited or no diversification of such foods can be hindrance to the consumption and all-year accessibility of these foods. This project has developed and demonstrated simple, affordable processes to potentially produce dried soups containing mopane worms, an edible insect common in arid and semi-arid southern African countries. The manufacturing of these pre-mixes requires relatively simple, easy to use equipment to process the raw materials. The enhanced protein content and possibly quality of the developed products can be beneficial especially to people who have less access to meat products. This piece has demonstrated the enhancement of nutrition by making “scary-looking” worms become part of our meals without seeing its presence. The potential use of the developed products depends on pending consumer sensory tests, nutrient bioavailability and technology transfer uptake and ultimately its commercialisation by Small and Medium Enterprises.