Mood Markers Research Articles

Topics in Oceanic morphosyntax (review)

Reviewed by: Topics in Oceanic morphosyntax William A. Foley Topics in Oceanic morphosyntax. Ed. by Claire Moyse-Faurie and Joachim Sabel. (Trends in linguistics, studies and monographs 239.) Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton, 2011. Pp. 344. ISBN 9783110259896. $140 (Hb). This volume contains a collection of papers mostly drawn from those presented at the seventh Conference on Oceanic Linguistics, which took place in Noumea, New Caledonia, in July 2007. The conferences on Oceanic linguistics began in the late 1980s, after researchers in Oceanic languages [End Page 910] decided to organize their own specialist conferences separately from the mother Austronesian conferences that began in the early 1970s. The Oceanic languages number some 450, more than the great majority of the world’s language families, and spread over a vast territory from New Guinea in the west to Hawai’i in the east and from Micronesia in the north to New Zealand in the south, but surprisingly are actually a relatively compact, well-defined, and low-level subgroup in the Austronesian language family, as this abbreviated diagram of subgrouping in Austronesian shows (Blust 2009). 1. In spite of constituting a relatively low-level subgroup of Austronesian, Oceanic languages exhibit a wide range of typological diversity in their morphosyntax, as this volume demonstrates. However, if we exclude those languages spoken in coastal New Guinea, whose typology has in many cases been radically altered due to millennial-long contact with the structurally quite different languages of various Papuan language families, it is possible to delimit a canonical Oceanic morphosyntactic type. This idealized Oceanic language has a left-headed branching structure, that is, VO, with typically SVO or VOS clause-level constituent order (often both in the same language, as in Tolai) or less commonly VSO. Oceanic languages exhibit anaphoric pronominal agreement (Bresnan & Mchombo 1987) for both subject and object, the former by a proclitic or prefix and the latter by an enclitic or suffix. The alignment of these pronominal agreement markers is nominative-accusative, although elsewhere in their syntax Oceanic languages typically provide little evidence for an accusative alignment for grammatical relations (Ross 2004). Tense, aspect, and mood markers are also proclitics to the verb, but may occur before or after the subject pronominals, depending on the individual language, and in some cases fuse with the latter. Verbs take a range of derivational morphemes, the most important of which signal the transitivity of a verb. There are typically two transitivizing suffixes, one with the form *-i, which indicates that the object bears a more ‘direct’ semantic role to its governing verb, that is, a patient or theme, and the other, -aki(ni), which signals a more ‘accessory’ role like location, goal, or instrument. Object NPs can also undergo noun incorporation, in which case the verb may undergo a formal process of intransitivization, such as reduplication. Nouns typically do not take any inflection, the only exception being inalienable nouns that require a pronominal possessor suffix. Alienable nouns are possessed by attaching the pronominal possessive suffixes to a possessive classifier, never directly to a noun. There can be many of these, as in Micronesian languages (Benton 1968), but the minimal contrast usually made is a binary one, such as between a dominant, controlling possessive relationship versus a subordinate, controlled one, as in Tolai: ka-na pal (dom-3sg.poss house) ‘his house’ versus ra-na kankan (sub-3sg.poss anger) ‘his anger’. In keeping with their left-headed typology, head nouns in Oceanic languages are typically phrase-initial, but commonly NPs are complements of DPs, which in turn are headed by a phrase-initial D. The category D distinguishes between common and proper NP complements. Oceanic languages normally have little in the way of nonfinite clauses beyond nominalizations, which are pervasive. Though serial verb constructions are rife, subordinate and coordinate clauses are of the same form as independent main clauses. wh-words may remain in situ, perhaps unusually for such robustly left-headed languages, or they may move to a clause-initial position. [End Page 911] Beyond their fixed VO order, Oceanic languages exhibit some flexibility in their clausal constituency order. The first chapter in the volume, by Joachim Sabel, ‘Deriving linear order in...

Mood and Transitivity in South Efate

South Efate, an Oceanic language of central Vanuatu, allows the expression of temporal relations in several ways using markers of aspect and mood. Pronominal expression of arguments is obligatory and, as subject proclitics occur in one of three forms (realis, irrealis, and perfect), expression of aspect or mood is required in every sentence. South Efate is one of a group of Vanuatu languages that displays stem-initial mutation, whereby the initial consonant of a very small group of verbs changes to reflect mood. This paper presents evidence that fortis (realis) and lenis (irrealis) stem mutation also correlates with features of transitivity, not a surprising finding following the work of Hopper and Thompson. All else being equal, the fortis form of the verb occurs in clauses that have an overt expression of an object, while the lenis form occurs when there is no object in the clause. A further curiosity is that stem-initial mutation has been maintained for just a small class of verbs, so its correlation with transitivity in just this small class is all the more interesting. This paper explores the relationship between the morphological expression of mood and transitivity in South Efate, and suggests frequency of use as an explanation for the retention of this marginal system that affects only 7 percent of verb stems in the lexicon.

Effect of a 24-Hour Fluid Deprivation on Mood and Physiological Hydration Markers in Women

Effect of a 24-Hour Fluid Deprivation on Mood and Physiological Hydration Markers in Women

A Critical Assessment of the Acute Effects of Yoga and Cardiovascular Exercise on Markers of Mood and Stress

Both yoga and exercise have been suggested as an effective method of alleviating depressive disorders, along with being shown to uplift mood and increase positivity, even when not clinically depressed. Objectives: The aim of this trial was to examine the efficaciousness of yoga and exercise in acutely improving mood in non-depressed participants. Methods: This study involved female participants of a yoga group (n=8) and an exercise group (n=7). Participants completed a Profile of Mood States (POMS) questionnaire before undertaking a sixty minute class. An identical POMS questionnaire was then completed immediately after the class had ended. Results: There was a main effect of trial (p=0.049) on anger; participants of the exercise class displayed higher levels of anger than participants of yoga. There was no main effect on fatigue for trial or time (p=0.244 and p=0.270 respectively). There was a main effect of time on tension/anxiety (p<0.001), depression/dejection (p=0.009), anger/hostility (p=0.011), vigour/activity (p<0.001) and confusion/bewilderment (p=0.001). Both yoga and exercise improved these mood states. Conclusion: Exercise and yoga significantly increase vigour, and reduce depression, tension, confusion, anxiety and anger. Both are invigorating to participants and provide an uplifting effect and increase in feelings of positivity; they would be a viable method of self-treatment for people experiencing low mood. With further research, exercise and yoga would be a viable option of an alternative or adjunct to medication.

Subjunctivity and cross-world predication

The main goal of this paper is to present and compare two approaches to formalizing cross-world comparisons like “John might have been taller than he is” in quantified modal logics. One is the standard method employing degrees and graded positives, according to which the example just given is to be paraphrased as something like “The height that John has is such that he might have had a height greater than it,” which is amenable to familiar formalization strategies with respect to quantified modal logic. The other approach, based on subjunctive modal logic, mimics the mixed indicative-subjunctive patterns typical of cross-world comparisons in many natural languages by means of explicit mood markers. This latter approach is new and should, for various reasons, appeal to linguists and philosophers. Along the way, I argue that attempts to capture cross-world comparison by means of sentential operators are either inadequate or subject to substantive logical and philosophical objections.

The effect of parabolic flight on perceived physical, motivational and psychological state in men and women: Correlation with neuroendocrine stress parameters and electrocortical activity

Previous findings of decreased mental and perceptual motor performance during parabolic flights have been attributed mainly to the primary effects of weightlessness rather than the accompanying effects of stress and altered mood. Although recent studies have alluded to the possible negative effects of stress on performance, there has been no attempt to investigate this during parabolic flights. Over a period of 3 years, 27 human participants (male n = 18, mean age ± SD 34.67 ± 7.59 years; female n = 9, 36.22 ± 9.92 years) were recruited with the aim to evaluate if, and to what extent, parabolic flights are accompanied by changes in mood. Furthermore, the relationships between mood and physiological markers of stress and arousal, namely circulating stress hormones (ACTH, cortisol, epinephrine, norepinephrine, prolactin and brain activity (EEG)) were investigated. A strong and significant correlation was found between circulating stress hormone concentrations and perceived physical state, motivational state (MOT) and psychological strain (PSYCHO), whereas no interaction between mood and EEG or EEG and stress hormone concentrations was observed. Therefore, two different stress responses appear to be present during parabolic flight. The first seems to be characterised by general cortical arousal, whereas the second seems to evolve from the adrenomedullary system. It is likely that both these mechanisms have different effects on mental and perceptual motor performance, which require further investigation and should to be taken into account when interpreting previous weightlessness research.

Defining crosslinguistic categories: The case of nominal tense (Reply to Nordlinger and Sadler)*

1. Taking stock. Nordlinger & Sadler 2004 (NS04) brought nominal tense/aspect/ mood (TAM) markers across languages to the attention of the linguistic community and raised many important questions about noun-phrase temporality, lexical categories, and other research areas. In the theoretical literature on noun-phrase temporality, the idea that tense might be a category of noun phrases was considered as early as En9 1981. In her analysis of the temporal interpretation of noun phrases, Enc (1981:41-45) briefly entertains the possibility of noun phrases being interpreted by nominal tense operators that locate the time relative to which a noun phrase is interpreted (i.e. Tonhauser 2007 's (T07) noun-phrase time tnp) relative to the utterance time. En9 ultimately rejects the proposal since nominal tense operators 'do not correspond to tense morphemes' (1981:44), that is, do not have overt morphological counterparts, but also because an analysis according to which the noun-phrase time is contextually determined is more adequate.1 The primary focus of subsequent literature on noun-phrase temporality was to identify structural, semantic, and pragmatic constraints on the location of the noun-phrase time (e.g. Enc 1986, Musan 1995, 1999, Demirdache 1997, Tonhauser 2002). In the context of this research, the empirical domain of which is English, German, and St'at'imcets, that is, languages that do not have nominal temporal markers, N& S's claim that there are languages with nominal tenses is exciting because these languages would provide overt evidence for Enc/s nominal tense operators and promise insight into the way that the noun-phrase time is located.2 My research on Guarani was directly motivated by NS together with Tonhauser 2006 (T06), this constitutes the first detailed, truth-conditional semantic study of such markers in any language. The semantic analysis I provide makes it possible to compare the meaning of the nominal markers to that of verbal tense and verbal aspect markers. Table 1 summarizes the semantic criteria I used in T06 and T07 to establish whether a marker is tense-like. In this table, it is assumed (following e.g. Reichenbach 1947, Smith 1991, Kamp & Reyle 1993, Klein 1994) that verbal tense encodes (or presupposes) a relation between the utterance time and the reference time, and verbal aspect encodes a relation between the reference time and the event time;

TRACTARIAN SÄTZE, EGYPTIAN HIEROGLYPHS, AND THE VERY IDEA OF SCRIPT AS PICTURE

Is it possible for a writing system to be based on pictures? In the philosophical literature, the hieroglyphic writing system of the Ancient Egyptians is sometimes taken as the example par excellence of a purely pictorial script. The hieroglyphs are assumed to be signs that do not indicate how they are supposed to be pronounced, as do the signs of the alphabets of, among other, the Indo-European languages; instead, they depict what they mean. Most prominently, Ludwig Wittgenstein draws an analogy between the pictorial semantics of the Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus and the alleged pictorial script of hieroglyphic writing:

On Sentence-final Particles ye and yi in Pre-Qin Chinese: A Study Mainly Based on Evidence from Zuo-zhuan

This paper re-opens a discussion on the grammatical functions of declarative sentence final particles ye [也] and yi [矣] in Pre-Qin Chinese. Whereas traditional grammarians hold the opinion that ye and yi are markers of mood, Pulleyblank (1994) argues against it. The present study concludes that their functions have to do with expressing the speaker’s subjectivity, and will be better interpreted in terms of illocutionary force. Its findings support traditional grammarians’ opinion, and further suggest that ye indicate the force of identification, and yi, the force of estimate. It is plausible that the above-mentioned functions of ye and yi are results from historical developments.

The status of purpose, reason, and intended endpoint in the typology of complex sentences: implications for layered models of clause structure

This study argues that constructions of purpose, reason and intended endpoint have a special status in typologies of complex sentences, because they combine features of the adverbial domain and the complement domain. The feature they share with adverbial clauses is that they do not function as the object of the predicate of the main clause, but instead elaborate on its circumstances. The feature they share with complement clauses is that unlike other adverbial clauses they specify the mental state of some participant in the main clause, typically the agent. Evidence for this special status comes from two sources. On the one hand, it is shown that the recognition of a mental state relation is necessary in semantic terms, to distinguish the three constructions from semantically similar types in the adverbial domain, and to explain their exceptional behavior in terms of presupposition. On the other hand, it is also shown that the presence of such a mental state relation is crosslinguistically reflected in the formal make-up of the three construction types, specifically in the use of mood markers in the dependent clause, and in the use of conjunctions that are shared with the domain of represented speech. From a theoretical perspective, the intermediate status of constructions of purpose, reason and intended endpoint is important because it provides structural evidence for layered models of clause structure, specifically for the distinction between a description-related and an interaction-related layer of organization, and for a further subdivision of the interaction-related layer in terms of modal and illocutionary features.

10-04 Identifying markers of negative mood: the gender-specific influence of COMT and MAO-A polymorphisms on emotion processing.

10-04 Identifying markers of negative mood: the gender-specific influence of COMT and MAO-A polymorphisms on emotion processing.

The role of chiropractic manipulation in promoting an individual's perception of psychological well being

Summary Background A paucity of chiropractic research focuses on the relationship between chiropractic treatment and psychological mood. It is, however, becoming increasingly important to evaluate psychological change resulting from chiropractic care. Such research is required both to protect the profession from criticism that its effectiveness resides in a placebo effect and also to confer validity to findings from studies that investigate the extension of chiropractic treatment to conditions known to be affected by psychological variables. Objective This research is intended as a preliminary study aimed at investigating, firstly, whether participation in chiropractic treatment, either sham or active, is able to alter dimensions of psychological well being and, secondly, if an alteration is seen to establish whether this can be attributed to manipulation. Research method This double-blind study was conducted on twenty asymptomatic subjects who were randomly allocated either to a group receiving active manipulation or to one receiving sham manipulation for a total of four interventions set over a 1-month period. Various markers of psychological well being were measured through the use of questionnaires (the perceived stress scale (PSS), the profile of mood states (POMS) questionnaire and the Spielberger state trait anxiety inventory (STAI)) given out before and after each intervention. Data were analysed per intervention for intra-group and inter-group changes as well as for intra-group changes over the time period of multiple interventions. Results Few statistically significant results were seen. These were clustered around the first intervention. Results showed that active manipulation, in contrast to sham, had a stronger and broader effect on promoting emotional well being. Sham manipulation also caused significant change but on fewer markers of psychological mood. No effect was as strong as to cause significant inter-group differences. Conclusion While active manipulation was seen to exert a stronger effect than sham manipulation on markers of psychological well being, the mechanism by which this effect is generated remains unknown. The changes seen are in part likely to be attributable to aspects relating to the clinical encounter; however, these changes are minimal and fail to exert any influence over time. This suggests that chiropractic care when effective is effective because it offers effective treatment and not an effective placebo via changes in psychological well being.

The role of mood marking in complex sentences A case study of Australian languages

This study investigates the role of mood markers in the semantic composition of complex sentence constructions, on the basis of a sample of Australian languages. The question of mood marking in complex sentences is theoretically significant because it involves a clause-internal category that plays a crucial role in the semantics of a construction above the level of the individual clause. Previous work on mood in complex sentences has shown that presence of mood marking in one of the component clauses tends to correlate with a feature of non-actualization on the level of the complex sentence. In this paper, I argue that this semantic generalization actually obscures a number of constructionally relevant distinctions, because there are two additional factors that determine the precise role of the mood marker in the complex sentence: (1) the presence or absence of specifically relational markers like conjunctions and (2) the semantically schematic or specific nature of these markers. In constructions without relational markers, mood markers do not strictly speaking encode the complex sentence relation, but pragmatically trigger it. In constructions with relational markers, on the other hand, mood markers and relational markers jointly encode the complex sentence relation, but their relative contribution depends on a principle of functional trade-off.

The Nature of Irreality in the Past Domain: Evidence from Past Intentional Constructions in Australian Languages*

This study investigates an unusual pattern of mood marking found in the past-tense counterparts of purposive and apprehensive complex sentences in some Australian languages. The secondary clause in these constructions, which will be called past intentional constructions, is typically marked for mood even though the event described is often known to have taken place, and in some cases the mood markers have counterfactual meanings even though the constructions as such do not have any counterfactual meaning. It is argued that past intentional constructions can be defined on the basis of a combination of two features: (1) mood marking in the secondary clause, which adduces a semantic feature of (un)desirability; and (2) a link of this mood to the agent of the main clause, which creates a relation of intended or avoided realization between the main clause and the secondary clause. This analysis can help both to motivate the presence of mood marking in these constructions, and to explain the apparently unmotivated use of mood markers with counterfactual meaning, which is shown to be a cancellable implicature rather than a basic meaning of the mood markers in question. In addition, the analysis also suggests that purposive, apprehensive and past intentional constructions constitute a formally and functionally intermediate category between constructions of speech and thought representation and constructions of adverbial modification.

Effect of folic acid supplementation on mood and serotonin response in healthy males

Evidence suggests that low folate status may be detrimental to mood and associated with depleted cerebrospinal fluid levels of the neurotransmitter serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine; 5-HT). A placebo-controlled trial was carried out to determine the effect of folic acid supplementation (100 microg for 6 weeks followed by 200 microg for a further 6 weeks) upon subjective mood (Positive and Negative Affect Schedule) and biochemical markers of mood (5-HT) in healthy males (n 23). Blood samples were obtained at baseline (week 0) and during the intervention at week 6 and week 12. Subjective mood assessments were obtained at week 0 and week 12. The results showed an increase in serum and erythrocyte folate concentrations (P=0.02 and P=0.003, respectively) and a corresponding decrease in plasma homocysteine (P=0.015) in response to the folic acid intervention. Neither subjective mood nor 5-HT levels, however, were significantly altered in response to the change in folate status. Folic acid given at physiological doses did not appear to improve the mood of healthy folate-replete individuals over a 12-week period. Further research is needed to address the effect of folic acid supplementation or of longer duration or increased dose, particularly in the face of sub-optimal folate status.

Regional variation in the English verb qualifier system

Nonstandard dialects often use the same form for the past tense and past participle of irregular verbs for which the standard language has distinct forms. One possible reason would be that some speakers have a nonstandard system of verb qualifiers (tense, mood, and aspect markers) in which the past tense/past participle distinction is functionally redundant. Data on spontaneous speech in Britain in the 1990s partly supports this by showing marked regional variation in the use of the Perfect construction. However, some nonstandard past tenses cannot be explained in terms of a nonstandard qualifier system.

Self-esteem, cortisol reactivity, and depressed mood mediated by perceptions of control

This study investigated cortisol reactivity (CR) as a moderator and perceptions of control as a mediator between low self-esteem (SE) and depressed mood. Fifty-four participants completed SE and mood inventories before an uncontrollable laboratory stressor. Salivary cortisol was determined before and after the stressor. Analyses indicated significance for SE ( β=−0.30), CR ( β=−0.92) and their interaction ( β=−0.90) in predicting depressed mood ( P=0.03 for all). Low SE and decreased CR predicted the highest levels of depressed mood. The interaction indicated that depressed mood was predicted by increases in cortisol in individuals with higher SE, but by decreases in cortisol in individuals with lower SE. These relationships were statistically explained by low perceptions of control at baseline. Findings support biopsychological explanations for depression, with SE, CR, and uncontrollability as putative markers of depressed mood that may be even more pronounced in depressive disorders.

Immune, stress, and mood markers related to recurrent oral herpes outbreaks

This was a prospective and longitudinal study designed to compare daily mood states and weekly changes in plasma levels of immune and neuroendocrine markers with recurrent herpes labialis lesion recurrences during a 3-month period among 9 subjects. Results from a paired t test showed that there was a significant decrease in plasma levels of natural killer cells and serum levels of epinephrine from the week before recurrent herpes labialis lesion occurrence (T 1,9 = 2.70; p < 0.05) to the week of recrudescence (T 1,9 = 2.41; p < 0.05). On the other hand, in the week before recrudescence the number of natural killer cells was 58 units higher than the overall group mean for natural killer cell level (227 units). In the week before outbreak, elevated natural killer cell numbers were associated with a mood of discontentment ( r = 0.64; p = 0.05). Elevated levels of epinephrine averaged across the 12 weekly blood draws were significantly correlated with higher scores on affect intensity ( r = 0.72; p < 0.05). This study provides new data on the pattern of changes in stress, mood states, and immune and neuroendocrine markers associated with the recurrence of perioral herpes lesions. Putative mechanisms linking neuroendocrine and immune function are discussed.

Old Irish verbs and vocabulary By Antony Green (review)

234 LANGUAGE, VOLUME 74, NUMBER 1 (1998) Old Irish verbs and vocabulary. By Antony Green. Somerville, MA: Cascadura Press, 1995. Pp. v, 145. $15.00. Virtually all students of Old Irish are introduced to the subject with John Strachan's Old-Irish paradigms and selections from the Old-Irish glosses (fourth edition revised by Osborn Bergin, Dublin: Royal Irish Academy, 1949) supplemented by E. G. Quin's Old-Irish workbook (Dublin: Royal Irish Academy, 1975). These get the student started, but Strachan's glossary is only selective, and Quin does not supply one, thus leaving the beginner to face the unwieldy Dictionary of the Irish language (Dublin: Royal Irish Academy, 1913-76). And neither of them addresses the most daunting aspect of Old Irish for the learner, the complicated phonological alternations that exist between forms of the verb which occupy absolute initial position in the clause and those which are preceded by a variety of null-position elements such as negators, preverbs, and interrogative particles. Thus, for example, absolute initial as beir '(s)he says' alternates with epir, eiper, and con ice '(s)he is able' alternates with cumaic, cumaing, cumuing . The rules underlying these alternations have now been addressed in Kim McCone's The Early Irish verb (Maynooth: An Sagart, 1987), but it is not a book for absolute beginners. They require more basic pedagogical support. Both of these matters have now been addressed by Green's slim volume, which he tells us in his preface he originally compiled as a learner for his own use. It is no surprise that demand for such a commodity immediately developed among his fellow learners, and it is a boon for all that it is now widely available. The first part of the volume gives the paradigms for many of the verbs found in the exercises in Quin's Workbook. Those not given include the weak verbs, whose predictable forms can be extrapolated from the sample paradigms given, and compound verbs whose forms can likewise be extrapolated from the paradigms of verbs with the same base. G lists each verb in normalized orthography , noting conjugation class and the exponents employed as tense and mood markers. Not every form in a given paradigm is attested, of course, but when they can be uncontroversially reconstructed, G distinguishes them with italic type. Throughout this section , he is also careful to provide explanatory notes on individual forms as they are required. The second part of the volume is composed of Old Irish-English and English-Old Irish glossaries which include every word in the Strachan and Quin volumes as well as some other common words. In the Old Irish-English section, conjugated verb forms are often separately alphabetized and referred to the relevant head word—a work saver for beginning students—and in both glossaries nomináis are listed with a notation of their gender and stem classes. All instructors of Old Irish will want to bring this valuable tool to the attention oftheir students. [Joseph F. Eska, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University.] The biology of language. Ed. by Stanislaw Puppel. Amsterdam & Philadelphia : John Benjamins, 1995. Pp. x, 300. Cloth $84.00. This book collects the papers presented at a December 1988 international symposium held at Czerniejewo , Poland. The papers address questions of human language's biological origins; the authors present essentialist, evolutionist, and alternative arguments about the source of our ability to communicate linguistically. The volume includes indices of names and terms. Many ofthe authors posit that evolution has played an important role in our language abilities, but Mary Ritchie Key offers convincing insight from an essentialist stance. In "The biological imperatives in communicative interaction' (147-56), Key illustrates the relationship between physiology and language through a model based on the structure of cognate sets in comparative linguistic studies. One theme that runs through many of the evolutionist articles is the relationship of animal or homimd symbol use to human language. In 'Animal communication and human language: Searching for their evolutionary relationship' (99-126), Gábor Gyori suggests ways that human language might have evolved from animal communication and discusses language as a cognitive system. Also, Robert Payson Creed posits, in "The invention of...

Measuring affect at work: confirmatory analyses of competing mood structures with conceptual linkage to cortical regulatory systems.

Twenty so-called clear markers of positive and negative mood (Watson & Tellegen, 1985) were applied in the current study to measure affect at work. Confirmatory factor analyses of a bipolar Two-Factor (i.e., positive and negative affect) Model and a competing multifactor model were conducted with three samples: managerial and professional workers in an insurance firm, retail sales personnel, and a heterogeneous group of students who were employed. The first-order Two-Factor Model (i.e., descriptively bipolar positive and negative affect factors) hypothesized to underlie the 20 affect items did not provide a strong fit to the data in the three samples. A first-order Four-Factor Model with descriptively unipolar factors labeled as Positive Arousal (Enthusiasm), Negative Activation (Nervousness), Low Arousal (Fatigue), and Low Activation (Relaxation) provided a better fit across the samples. These results support the measurement of positive and negative mood as descriptively unipolar factors. The measurement implications of these results as well as conceptual linkages between the four mood factors and the two major cortical regulatory systems, left-lateralized dopaminergic activation and right-lateralized noradrenergic arousal, are discussed.