Monitoring Of Surface Contamination Research Articles

Development and validation of a quantitative wipe sampling method to determine platinum contamination from antineoplastic drugs on surfaces in workplaces at Swedish hospitals.

Antineoplastic drugs (ADs) are frequently used pharmaceuticals in the healthcare, and healthcare workers can be occupationally exposed to ADs. Monitoring of surface contamination is a common way to assess occupational exposure to ADs. The objective was to develop and validate a sensitive and quantitative monitoring method to determine surface contaminations of Pt as a marker for Pt-containing ADs. The surface contaminations of Pt-containing ADs were monitored at four Swedish hospital workplaces. An analytical method was developed based on inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry. The wipe sampling procedure was validated regarding different surface materials. The stability of collected wipe samples was investigated. Workplace surfaces were monitored by wipe sampling to determine contaminations of Pt-containing ADs. A wipe sampling and analytical method with a limit of detection of 0.1 pg Pt/cm2 was developed. Pt was detected in 67% of the wipe samples collected from four workplaces, and the concentrations ranged from <0.10 to 21100 pg/cm2. In 4% of samples, the detected surface contaminations of Pt in three hospital wards were above proposed hygienic guidance value (HGV) of Pt. In the hospital pharmacy, 9% of the detected surface contaminations of Pt were above lowest proposed HGV. A user-friendly, specific, and sensitive method for determination of surface contaminations of Pt from ADs in work environments was developed and validated. A large variation of contaminations was observed between detected surface contaminations of Pt in samples collected in wards, and it likely reflects differences in amounts handled and work practices between the wards.

Plasma Cleaning of Hydrocarbon and Carbon Contaminated Surfaces of Accelerator Components

To achieve the vacuum quality required for the operation of particle accelerators, the surface of the vacuum vessels must be clean from hydrocarbons. This is usually achieved by wet chemistry processes, e.g., degreasing chemical baths that, in case of radioactive vessels, must be disposed accordingly. An alternative way exploits the oxygen plasma produced by a downstream RF plasma source. This technique offers the possibility of operating in-situ, which is an advantageous option to avoid the handling of voluminous and/or fragile components and a more sustainable alternative to large volume disposable baths. In this work, we test a commercial plasma source in dedicated vacuum systems equipped with quartz crystal microbalances (QCMs). The evolution of the etching rates of amorphous carbon (a-C) thin films deposited on the QCMs to mimic contamination are studied as function of operating parameters. We present the results of the plasma cleaning process applied to the real case of a hydrocarbons-contaminated large vacuum vessel. The studies are complemented by transport simulations and surface contamination monitoring by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) analysis. The evaluation of the vessel cleanliness, which is performed via residual gas analysis (RGA) measurements, is based on CERN’s outgassing acceptance criteria and agrees with both simulations and XPS results.

Proposals of guidance values for surface contamination by antineoplastic drugs based on long term monitoring in Czech and Slovak hospitals and pharmacies.

The exposures to hazardous antineoplastic drugs (AD) represent serious risks for health care personnel but the exposure limits are not commonly established because of the no-threshold effects (genotoxic action, carcinogenicity) of many ADs. In this study, we discussed and derived practically applicable technical guidance values (TGV) suitable for management of AD risks. The long-term monitoring of surface contamination by eight ADs was performed in pharmacies and hospitals in the Czech Republic and Slovak Republic in 2008-2021; in total 2,223 unique samples were collected repeatedly in 48 facilities. AD contamination was studied by LC-MS/MS for cyclophosphamide, ifosfamide, methotrexate, irinotecan, paclitaxel, 5-fluorouracil and gemcitabine and by ICP-MS for total Pt as a marker of platinum-based ADs. The study highlighted importance of exposure biomarkers like 5-fluorouracil and especially carcinogenic and persistent cyclophosphamide, which should be by default included in monitoring along with other ADs. Highly contaminated spots like interiors of laminar biological safety cabinets represent a specific issue, where monitoring of contamination does not bring much added value, and prevention of staff and separated cleaning procedures should be priority. Rooms and surfaces in health care facilities that should be virtually free of ADs (e.g., offices, kitchenettes, daily rooms) were contaminated with lower frequency and concentrations but any contamination in these areas should be carefully examined. For all other working places, i.e., majority of areas in pharmacies and hospitals, where ADs are being prepared, packaged, stored, transported, or administered to patients, the study proposes a generic TGV of 100 pg/cm2. The analysis of long-term monitoring data of multiple ADs showed that the exceedance of one TGV can serve as an indicator and trigger for improvement of working practices contributing thus to minimizing of unintended exposures and creating a safe work environment.

One-year monitoring SARS-CoV-2 RNA surface contamination in hospitals reveals no correlation with organic material and negative pressure as a limiting factor for contamination

Understanding transmission routes of SARS-CoV-2 is crucial to establish effective interventions in healthcare institutions. Although the role of surface contamination in SARS-CoV-2 transmission has been controversial, fomites have been proposed as a contributing factor. Longitudinal studies about SARS-CoV-2 surface contamination in hospitals with different infrastructure (presence or absence of negative pressure systems) are needed to improve our understanding of their effectiveness on patient healthcare and to advance our knowledge about the viral spread.We performed a one-year longitudinal study to evaluate surface contamination with SARS-CoV-2 RNA in reference hospitals. These hospitals have to admit all COVID-19 patients from public health services that require hospitalization. Surfaces samples were molecular tested for SARS-CoV-2 RNA presence considering three factors: the dirtiness by measuring organic material, the circulation of a high transmissibility variant, and the presence or absence of negative pressure systems in hospitalized patients' rooms.Our results show that: (i) There is no correlation between the amount of organic material dirtiness and SARS-CoV-2 RNA detected on surfaces; (ii) SARS-CoV-2 high transmissible Gamma variant introduction significantly increased surface contamination; (iii) the hospital with negative pressure systems was associated with lower levels of SARS-CoV-2 surface contamination and, iv) most environmental samples recovered from contaminated surfaces were assigned as non-infectious.This study provides data gathered for one year about the surface contamination with SARS-CoV-2 RNA sampling hospital settings. Our results suggest that spatial dynamics of SARS-CoV-2 RNA contamination varies according with the type of SARS-CoV-2 genetic variant and the presence of negative pressure systems. In addition, we showed that there is no correlation between the amount of organic material dirtiness and the quantity of viral RNA detected in hospital settings. Our findings suggest that SARS CoV-2 RNA surface contamination monitoring might be useful for the understanding of SARS-CoV-2 dissemination with impact on hospital management and public health policies. This is of special relevance for the Latin-American region where ICU rooms with negative pressure are insufficient.

Evaluating the Radioactive Waste Produced per Patient by Radiopharmaceutical Sources and Measuring the Radioactive Contamination of Surfaces and Staff at the Bushehr Nuclear Medicine Department.

Nuclear medicine is an integral and developing field in diagnosing and treating diseases. Monitoring individuals' protection and radiation contamination in the workplace is vital for preserving working environments. This study aimed to monitor the nuclear medicine department's personnel, environment, and wastes to determine the level of occupational radiation and environmental pollution in Bushehr's nuclear medicine department. In this cross-sectional study, the initial activity of each radioisotope, radiopharmaceutical, and radioactive waste was measured using a "well counter" daily for three months. Three irradiators' absorbed doses were measured using a direct reading dosimeter. The contamination was determined using an indirect wipe test method on various surfaces. A Geiger Müller dosimeter was employed to examine personnel's hands, clothing, and footwear. The highest activity was observed in technetium waste (1118.31 mCi). Every irradiator received a lower absorption dose than the International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP) standard threshold. The majority of contamination was associated with the exercise test room (0.04 Bq/cm2) and its work surface (0.013 Bq/cm2), which were both below the threshold (0.5 Bq/cm2). Staff monitoring indicated that two nurses (10 and 11 individuals) had the highest contamination rate (23.7%). Daily assessment of the type, activity, and method of radiopharmaceutical administration to the patient is advantageous for waste management. Surface contamination monitoring can significantly contribute to the estimation of the level of radiation pollution in the environment.

Hygiene Indicators and Salmonellae on Surfaces of Swine Carcasses from Two Slaughterhouses in Northern Portugal

The monitoring of carcass surface contamination along the slaughter line enables verification of slaughter operation hygiene and the use of good manufacturing practices. Pork meat is a common source of human nontyphoidal salmonellosis, one of the most frequently reported foodborne illnesses worldwide. This study was conducted to gather data on microbial loads before and after evisceration on the surfaces of swine carcasses in two slaughterhouses. The presence of Salmonella enterica was evaluated only after evisceration on carcass surfaces and in livers and floor drains (environmental samples) because pigs are common carriers of this pathogen. The contamination of carcass surfaces was evaluated by delimitation of surface area with sterilized templates (100 cm2), and surface samples were collected with gauze swabs. Total aerobic mesophilic bacteria, Enterobacteriaceae, and Escherichia coli were enumerated. Significant differences (P < 0.05) in counts of mesophilic bacteria, Enterobacteriaceae, and E. coli were found on the external carcass surfaces, with higher counts after evisceration. The neck and abdominal areas had higher levels of mesophilic bacteria, Enterobacteriaceae, and E. coli and a high prevalence of Salmonella. Salmonella was detected in only one of the studied slaughterhouses; 19 (7.3%) of 259 analyzed carcass samples were positive for Salmonella, and Salmonella was detected in two livers and two floor drains. A total of 52 Salmonella isolates (44 from carcasses, 5 from livers, and 3 from drains) were recovered. Three Salmonella serovars (Typhimurium 4,5:i- , Wernigerone, and Derby) were identified, and 53.8% of the 52 isolates were multidrug resistant. The results reveal the need for continuous improvement of slaughtering operations and implementation of good manufacturing practices to ensure the safety of pork produced in Portugal.

Developing a Fast Ultra-High-Performance Liquid Chromatography–Tandem Mass Spectrometry Method for High-Throughput Surface Contamination Monitoring of 26 Antineoplastic Drugs

Growing attention on carcinogenicity and mutagenicity of antineoplastic drugs (ADs) from the International Agencies has led to the present strict safe handling and administration regulations. Accordingly, one of the most common ways to assess occupational exposure to these substances is to identify and quantify possible surface contamination inside hospital preparation and administration units. Thus, it is essential to develop a fast and high-throughput monitoring method capable of identifying a significant number of ADs. The present study reports developing a UHPLC–MS/MS analysis to screen 26 ADs surface contamination through wipe test sampling. A Cortecs UPLC T3 50 × 2.1 mm (1.6 µm) column was selected to perform the analysis, using the evaluations of previous studies and the Product Quality Research Institute (PQRI) database. The design of experiments (DoE) methodological approach was used to optimize the chromatographic conditions concerning the best separation between all ADs. The limits of quantification for the analytes were between the pg/mL and ng/mL orders, and the turnaround time was limited to about 15 min. The obtained accuracy was mostly between 90% and 110% for all the analytes, while the precision was under 10% and a low matrix effect was observed for said analytes. Only vindesine and docetaxel presented lower performances.

Report on 2020 Safe to Touch Consensus Conference on Hazardous Drug Surface Contamination.

The 2020 Safe to Touch Consensus Conference on Hazardous Drug Surface Contamination was convened in order to gather subject matter experts in the field of hazardous drug (HD) handling to develop consensus statements regarding surface contamination monitoring for adoption by stakeholders in the drug supply chain, policy, and healthcare arenas. The Safe to Touch conference convened virtually on September 22, 24, and 26, 2020. An expert panel of healthcare providers with experience in HD handling, monitoring, and research; pharmacy and nursing operations; and medication safety led the conference. An experienced audience of approximately 25 reaction panel members provided feedback to the panel via a preconference survey, during the conference, and at a postconference virtual town hall. Additionally, expert speakers presented on a range of issues, including the impact of HD surface contamination on health, current regulations and standards, surface contamination monitoring technologies, and variables impacting surface contamination testing. At the end of the conference, the expert panel developed 11 consensus statements and corresponding recommendations that should be widely disseminated in order to educate individuals regarding the impact of HD surface contamination and increase the scope of HD surface contamination monitoring. Institutions involved in the handling of HDs should set short- and long-term goals for implementation of applicable consensus statements.

Hand-foot monitors for nuclear plants based on scintillator–WLS–SiPM technology

The technology of charged particles detection by a plastic scintillator light from which is collected by wavelength shifting fiber (WLS) on Silicon Photomultiplier (SiPM) is widely used in high energy physics. We present in this article the new personnel surface contamination monitoring assembly based on that technology as a result of about two years R&D research. This assembly is used for contamination control of hands, feet and clothes at nuclear power plants, nuclear facilities and other objects that work with radioactive materials. Setup design, main parameters and its measurement procedures are presented. It has high efficiency to α and β particles in wide energy range, large dynamic range, very good area uniformity and excellent temperature stability. Dynamic range of measured particle fluence rate equals: 1 – 106 Hz·cm2·min for β-module and 0.1 – 2·104 Hz·cm2·min for α-module. Variations of the module response in temperature range from –20 C up to +50 C doesn`t exceed 3%.

Variability - Surface intensity distribution of large-area reference sources

In this paper we present the impact of variability, a surface source parameter, on the efficiency evaluation of surface contamination monitors. This study was based on two source uniformity correction methodologies and data from real surface source distributions. Surface source intensity distribution has been changed by rearranging the cells (portions of the active area of each LARS) while keeping the same source uniformity value. Instrument efficiencies have been calculated for different sets of uniformities and variabilities. This study led to emphasize the importance of variability, a differential source intensity distribution parameter, over the uniformity, an integral source intensity distribution parameter, and reinforced the importance of the source uniformity correction procedure on the course of surface contamination monitor calibration.

Optimisation and performance test of fibre-based large-area surface contamination monitor

A portable large-area radiological contamination surface monitor of advanced design is now under research and development. This monitor, whose detection area is 1200 cm2, is mainly applied for hot-spot searching for nuclear emergency response or facility decommissioning. It consists of a thin plastic scintillation tile and wavelength-shifting fibres coupled to a photomultiplier tube. To improve the detector performance, it is necessary to calculate the collection efficiency of optical photons from the scintillator. The optical photon transportation processes in the plastic scintillator and wavelength-shifting fibres are simulated using the Monte Carlo code Geant4. For further optimisation, experiments with different fibre arrangements are conducted to verify uniformity. In conclusion, an arrangement of ten neighbouring wavelength-shifting fibres, with alternating fibres connected on opposite sides of a organic support for the plastic scintillator presents a better performance for detection.

Development of alpha surface contamination monitor based on THGEM for contamination distribution

In cases of high radiation emergencies, we propose a surface contamination monitor (SCM) that can quickly measure and pinpoint the contamination distribution in the affected population. Thick gaseous electron multiplier (THGEM) has several advantages, including fast response time and good spatial resolution. Based on new THGEMs, a two-dimensional imaging detector was developed for alpha detection, with a position resolution greater than 3 mm. The detector design and test results are described in this paper. Fast radiation imaging SCMs, with a 40 mm × 40 mm sensitive area, are currently under development.

Exposure to 4,4'-methylene bis (2-chloroaniline) (MbOCA) in New South Wales, Australia.

This study was conducted to determine the level of exposure of 4,4'-methylene bis (2-chloroaniline) (MbOCA) in New South Wales (NSW), Australia. An integrated occupational hygiene and biological monitoring program were used to assess the workers' exposure to MbOCA via inhalation, ingestion and dermal contact. This was conducted by personal air monitoring, static air monitoring and surface contamination monitoring of the work environment and biological monitoring of the workers' exposure to MbOCA at nine workplaces in NSW. The air monitoring results for MbOCA gave a geometric mean (GM) of 0.06 μg/m3 and a geometric standard deviation (GSD) of 2.70 and a 95% confidence interval of 0.29 μg/m3. The surface contamination in the main work area showed the highest contamination with a GM of 74 ng/cm2 and a GSD of 17 and a 95% confidence interval of 7,751 ng/cm2. Biological monitoring showed a GM of 0.89 μmol/mol cr and a GSD of 11.9 and a 95% confidence interval of 52 μmol/mol cr. This indicated that 13% of the workers were over the SafeWork NSW Biological Occupational Exposure Limit of 15 μmol/mol cr. Workers' exposure through inhalation was minimal; however, evidence from biological monitoring of MbOCA suggested that the main contributing factor to exposure was skin absorption. This was attributed to poor housekeeping and inadequate personal protection. Improvements in these areas were recommended, and it was also recommended to improve the awareness of the workers to the adverse effects to their health of exposure to this carcinogen.

Retrospective observation of drug susceptibility of Candida strains in the years 1999, 2004, and 2015.

IntroductionThere is much literature devoted to the problem of drug resistance and decreased susceptibility of fungi to commonly used antifungals.AimTo analyze drug susceptibility of Candida albicans and non-Candida albicans strains isolated from the hands of people without any symptoms of disease over a 16-year period.Materials and MethodsThe study included a total of 1,274 Candida-type strains isolated from the hands of people without any symptoms of disease, including: in 1999, 432 strains; in 2004, 368; and in 2015, 454 strains. Biological monitoring of hand surface contamination was performed using the Count-TactTM applicator with Count-Tact plates (bioMerieux). Drug susceptibility was evaluated using FUNGITEST®.ResultsIn 1999, the most strains showed resistance to fluconazole (53.2%), in 2004 to itraconazole (52.9%), and in 2015 to fluconazole (85.8%). Resistance to more than one drug was 35.8% in 1999, 64.7% in 2004, and 92% in 2015. Mean resistance to azole antifungals significantly increased from 98 ± 39.7 strains in 1999 to 118.3 ± 29.6 in 2015 (p < 0.001). In 1999, the most strains showed resistance to fluconazole (50.6%), in 2004 to itraconazole (52.9%), and in 2015 to fluconazole (44.9%). Resistance to more than one drug was 52.9% in 1999, 64.3% in 2004, and 88.1% in 2015. Mean resistance to azole antifungals significantly increased from a mean of 76 ± 9.7 strains in 1999, to 95.3 ± 24.2 in 2004, and to 97.3 ± 16.6 in 2015 (p < 0.001).ConclusionsWe showed increased C. albicans and non-Candida albicans strain resistance to commonly used antifungal chemotherapeutics, mainly imidazole. We found a clear rise in susceptibility of C. albicans and non-Candida albicans strains to several studied antifungals.

O24. Calibration of radiation monitoring instruments at the NMISA

Introduction Radiation monitoring instruments are calibrated to ensure measurements of the instrument are reliable and accurate in all ranges and for energy spectrum in which the instrument is expected to function. The Dosimetry Section (Radiation Protection) of NMISA provides the calibration service for all types of radiation monitoring instruments. This paper will focus on the calibration of surface contamination monitor in terms of 2 π efficiency and surface activity response (SAR), survey meter in terms of ambient dose equivalent (ADE) rate and electronic personal dosimeter (EPD) in terms of personal dose equivalent (PDE). Measurements are traceable to the national standards calibrated at NPL, PTB and BIPM. Materials and methods Measurements for determining the 2 π efficiency and surface activity response of the surface contamination monitor were performed using the wide area reference sources and linearity measurements were performed using Cs-137 source. Survey meter and electronic personal dosimeter were calibrated using Cs-137 and Am-241 sources. Calibrations were performed in accordance with ISO 4037-3, ISO 8769 and SANAS TR 18-02. IAEA report series no. 16 is also used as a guideline. Results The uncertainties in the 2 π efficiency and surface activity response were estimated not to exceed ± 11% and ±4,0% respectively. For the survey meter and electronic personal dosimeter, the average error for all calibrated ranges did not exceed ±15% and the average percentage error per point for all ranges did not exceed ±25%. Conclusion The results obtained from calibrations were conforming to the SANAS TR 18-02 requirements and certificates issued in accordance with the ISO/IEC 17025:2005.

Individual monitoring of internal and external contamination in diagnostic or therapeutic use of radionuclides in medicine

Introduction Monitoring of internal exposure and external contamination for nuclear medicine workers requires frequent measurements due to the short physical half- lives of most radionuclides used in this field. Purpose The aim of this study was to develop screening procedures performed at the workplace by local staff using standard laboratory equipment to detect whether potential intake has occurred following ISO/DIS 16637, draft 2014 “Monitoring and internal dosimetry for staff exposed to medical radionuclides as unsealed sources“ Material and method Daily measurements of the ambient dose rate with scintillation detector and surface contamination monitor in front of the abdomen, thyroid and hands to detect whether potential intake or superficial contamination has occurred. Results For radionuclides with very short physical half-lives such as 99mTc and 18, screening procedures consist in performing daily measurements of the ambient dose rate in front of the abdomen. For pure beta emitters, i.e. 90Y the procedure consists in measuring hand contamination immediately after use. Such measurements (triage monitoring) do not enable to determine the committed effective dose, but are adequate to verify that a given threshold is not exceeded. If the thresholds are exceeded, the survey (special monitoring) is will deepen (for example with in-vitro measurements in escreta samples) Conclusions Screening measurements for detecting potential radioactivity intake and surface contamination of the hands by nuclear medicine workers enable an acceptable monitoring practical and economic.

Magnetoelastic Biosensors for Real-Time, Wireless Pathogen Detection on Surfaces

Recent outbreaks of Ebola in the United States have brought to the public’s attention the transfer of disease by contact with virus- and bacteria-contaminated surfaces ranging from hospital counters to door knobs to airplane seats. The need for a real-time, on-site technique by which pathogen-contaminated surfaces can be identified is immediate and real. Standard microbiological detection techniques, including enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELSA), polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and plate count, are time-consuming and manpower-intensive. This paper describes research into wireless magnetoelastic (ME) biosensors combined with a surface-scanning coil that can be used to detect both viral and bacterial contamination of surfaces. This detection method takes less than 10 minutes and eliminates time-consuming sample preparation such as enrichment. This paper investigates the use of wireless ME biosensors for the surface-scanning detection of pathogens on surfaces. The ME biosensor consists of an ME resonator as the sensor platform and E2 phage as the bio-recognition element. The E2 phage is genetically engineered to specifically bind with Salmonella Typhimurium. The ME biosensor is actuated into mechanical resonance by an externally applied magnetic field. A microfabricated planar coil was used to measure the resonant frequency of multiple ME biosensors in real time. When this phage-coated ME biosensor comes into contact with Salmonella cells, the bacterial cells are captured and bound to the biosensor’s surface by the phage. The bound bacterial cells then cause the mass of the ME biosensor to increase, resulting in a decrease in the resonant frequency. The change of the resonant frequency is known to be directly proportional to the additional mass of the bacteria attached to the biosensor surface. As a model study, multiple E2 phage-coated biosensors (measurement sensors) were placed on surfaces spiked with Salmonella Typhimurium with various concentrations. Control sensors without phage were also used to compensate for environmental effects and non-specific binding. The limit of detection and repeatability of testing were found to be comparable to standard real-time PCR. In this manner, in-situ, continuous, real-time monitoring of pathogenic surface contamination can be performed on any surfaces.

New Methodology of Monitoring for the Contamination Degree of Insulators

Insulator is an essential part of overhead line. In recent years, the news about the insulator flashover is increasing. The main reason of insulator flashover is insulator surface contamination. Insulator flashover is a serious threat to the safe and stable of transmission lines operation. With the development of China's comprehensive national strength, power companies and power users demand on grids stability is highly increased. Currently usual methods of insulator monitoring are ESDD (equivalent salt deposit density), experiment and on-line detecting of leakage current [. But they can't fully meet our requirements. Now this paper will present a new method, which is made correlation analysis by harmonic analysis based on two ends of the existing lines to the data acquisition apparatus of voltage and current signals. Without additional hardware devices online monitoring of insulator surface contamination can be achieved.

极紫外光学器件辐照污染检测技术

This paper reviews the "in situ"surface analysis and monitoring techniques for contamination induced in Extreme Ultraviolet Lithography( EUVL). It introduces the EUV lithography,reflective multilayer mirror and the mechanism of carbon contamination induced by EUV. It points out the requirement of the "in situ"surface analysis techniques in EUV lithography. The mainly surface analysis techniques are discussed. Analyzed results show the applied potentiality of each measurement used in the EUV optical system. Finally,it points out that the Fiber-based ellipsometry has further application prospect in "in situ"surface contamination monitoring of EUV lithography.

Absorption and backscatter of internal conversion electrons in the measurements of surface contamination of 137Cs

We measured 4π and 2π counting efficiencies for internal conversion electrons (ICEs), gross β-particles and also β-rays alone with various source conditions regarding absorber and backing foil thickness using e-X coincidence technique. Dominant differences regarding the penetration, attenuation and backscattering properties among ICEs and β-rays were revealed. Although the abundance of internal conversion electrons of 137Cs-137Ba is only 9.35%, 60% of gross counts may be attributed to ICEs in worse source conditions. This information will be useful for radionuclide metrology and for surface contamination monitoring.