Ecosystem Health Monitoring Research Articles

Improving the implementation of marine monitoring in the northeast Atlantic

Marine monitoring in the northeast Atlantic is delivered within identifiable monitoring themes, established through time and defined by the geographical area and policy drivers they serve, the sampling methodologies they use, their assessment methodologies, their funding and governance structures and the people or organisations involved in their implementation. Within a monitoring theme, essential components for effective monitoring are governance, strategy and work plan, sampling protocols, quality assurance, and data and assessment structures. This simple framework is used to analyse two monitoring theme case studies; national ecosystem health monitoring, and regional fish stock monitoring. Such essential component analyses, within marine monitoring themes, can help improve monitoring implementation by identifying gaps and overlaps. Once monitoring themes are recognised, explicitly defined and streamlined, travel towards integrated monitoring may be made easier as the current lack of clarity in thematic marine monitoring implementation is one barrier to integration at both national and regional scales.

Hierarchical Synthesis of Coastal Ecosystem Health Indicators at Karimunjawa National Marine Park

The coastal ecosystem of Karimunjawa National Marine Park (KNMP) is facing various pressures, including from human activity. Monitoring the health condition of coastal ecosystems periodically is needed as an evaluation of the ecosystem condition. Systematic and consistent indicators are needed in monitoring of coastal ecosystem health. This paper presents hierarchical synthesis of coastal ecosystem health indicators using Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) method. Hierarchical synthesis is obtained from process of weighting by paired comparison based on expert judgments. The variables of coastal ecosystem health indicators in this synthesis consist of 3 level of variable, i.e. main variable, sub-variable and operational variable. As a result of assessment, coastal ecosystem health indicators consist of 3 main variables, i.e. State of Ecosystem, Pressure and Management. Main variables State of Ecosystem and Management obtain the same value i.e. 0.400, while Pressure value was 0.200. Each main variable consist of several sub-variable, i.e. coral reef, reef fish, mangrove and seagrass for State of Ecosystem; fisheries and marine tourism activity for Pressure; planning and regulation, institutional and also infrastructure and financing for Management. The highest value of sub-variable of main variable State of Ecosystem, Pressure and Management were coral reef (0.186); marine tourism pressure (0.133) and institutional (0.171), respectively. The highest value of operational variable of main variable State of Ecosystem, Pressure and Management were percent of coral cover (0.058), marine tourism pressure (0.133) and presence of zonation plan, regulation also socialization of monitoring program (0.53), respectively. Potential pressure from marine tourism activity is the variable that most affect the health of the ecosystem. The results of this research suggest that there is a need to develop stronger conservation strategies to facing with pressures from marine tourism activities.

Agricultural constraints on microbial resource use and niche breadth in drainage ditches.

BackgroundMicroorganisms govern important ecosystems processes, in particular the degradation of organic matter (OM). However, microorganisms are rarely considered in efforts to monitor ecosystem health and functioning. Evidence suggests that environmental perturbations can adversely affect microbial communities and their ability to use available substrates. However, whether impacted microbial efficiencies in extracting and utilizing the available resources (resource niche breadth) translate to changes in OM degradation in natural systems remains poorly understood.MethodsHere we evaluated effects of differences in OM related to agricultural land use (OM derived from ditches adjacent to grasslands, bulb fields and a pristine dune area) on microbial functioning. We specifically assessed (1) resource niche breadths of microbial communities during initial community assembly in laboratory microcosms and already established natural communities, and (2) how changes in community resource niche breadth translates to the degradation of natural OM.ResultsA disparity existed between microbial resource niche breadth in laboratory incubations and natural microbial communities. Resource utilization and niche breadth of natural microbial communities was observed to be constrained in drainage ditches adjacent to agricultural fields. This outcome coincides with retarded degradation of natural OM collected from ditches adjacent to hyacinth bulb fields. Microbial communities in bulb field ditches further showed functional redundancy when offered grassland OM of seemingly higher substrate quality.DiscussionResults presented in this study suggest that agricultural practices can impose constraints on microbial functional diversity by reducing OM resource quality, which can subsequently translate to confined microbial resource niche differentiation and reduced organic matter degradation rates. This hints that assessments of actual microbial resource utilization and niche differentiation could potentially be used to assess the ecological health and functioning of natural communities.

An introduction to Lake of the Woods—from science to governance in an international waterbody

ABSTRACTAnderson JP, Paterson AM, Reavie ED, Edlund MB, Rühland, KM. 2017. An introduction to Lake of the Woods – from science to governance in an international water body. Lake Reserv Manage. 33:325–334.Lake of the Woods (LOW), a vast lake covering over 3850 km2, is a waterbody of current and historical significance that spans the borders between Minnesota and the Canadian provinces of Ontario and Manitoba. Over the past 2 decades, there has been concern for the water quality of LOW, sparked by anecdotal evidence of increased intensity and frequency of algal blooms by the public and resource managers. Minnesota's waters of LOW were declared impaired in 2008 due to exceedances of eutrophication criteria, initiating a Total Maximum Daily Load study. LOW's impairment declaration spurred several contrasting challenges and opportunities for water quality management across this diverse lake and basin. Governance challenges are emphasized by the large number of government agencies (>25) with land or water authorities in the 70,000 km2 basin, the variability in phosphorus standards applicable to LOW between Minnesota, Ontario, and Manitoba, and unequal funding resources allocated to LOW's water quality management agencies. Despite these challenges, there is a long history of international cooperation among agencies, recent funding increases, and the formation of a new International Joint Commission Board with the mandate to monitor ecosystem health in the entire LOW basin. As highlighted by the studies in this issue, the science of nutrient and algal dynamics in LOW is complex, and water quality restoration may take years to decades because major sources of nutrients to the lake are not subject to reductions by conventional lake restoration methods. An overview of papers in this special issue is provided.

GPS tracking cattle as a monitoring tool for conservation and management

The emergence of GPS technology has resulted in significant advances in the ease and flexibility of studying animal movement patterns, yet barriers remain to the widespread use of GPS units for animal tracking. Here, we developed a low-cost, logistically simple approach, deploying small and inexpensive GPS units to monitor cattle movements and habitat use and to assess the impact of cattle grazing on vegetation. Cattle were collared with i-gotU loggers to track fine-scale and broad-scale movements within an integrated ecosystem (cattle and wildlife) in Laikipia, central Kenya. At the fine scale, cattle exerted a significant impact on vegetation quantity and quality; increasing grazing intensity showed a negative relationship to grass height, but a positive correlation to green-up after rain. At the broad scale, cattle movement density varied notably by herd type and habitat availability, with acacia woodland and savanna grassland habitats used most predominantly. Overall, these small GPS loggers provided a flexible and relatively cheap method of tracking cattle movements, and demonstrated potential for collaring of cattle as a tool for monitoring ecosystem health and assisting management decisions.

An alternative method for estimating total impervious area in catchments using high-resolution colour aerial photography

Estimation of total impervious area (TIA) is a pre-requisite for ecohydrological research to allow for a direct prediction on stream ecosystem health within catchments. This paper presents an alternative to using multi-spectral imagery for estimating TIA at a catchment scale, by using high-resolution colour aerial photography. The method was applied to a number of catchments in South East Queensland, Australia, some of which were gauged and some of which were part of an Ecosystem Health Monitoring Program (EHMP). The results from this method were compared to TIA estimates, for some of the same catchments, that were derived through three other techniques, i.e. manual digitization of geo-referenced aerial photos, Brisbane City Council data derived from image analysis using Landsat TM imagery and rainfall runoff depth relationship. The high-resolution colour aerial photography method compared favourably to the other techniques with standard deviations of TIA (%) ranging between 0.8% and 8%. The major constraints were shading effects, particularly on roads and grassed areas, and from the similarity in colours between some surface types, some of which can be reduced by appropriate selection of signature colours and multiple iterations of a supervised classification. It was concluded that while infra-red spectral wave bands could help considerably, the high-resolution colour photography could be applied with confidence to derive catchment-scale TIA estimates.

Metacommunity structure of zooplankton in river networks: Roles of environmental and spatial factors

Zooplankton in river systems have seldom been studied in the context of metacommunity ecology. Spatial factors (e.g., river connectivity, directionality, and man-made dams) may play a key role in influencing the metacommunity structure of rotifers because of their small body size and weak mobility. In contrast, local environmental factors (e.g., physicochemical habitat) may be more important to crustaceans due to their larger body size and stronger mobility. We sampled zooplankton and environmental factors during wet and dry seasons from 47 sites along the Ying River in China to assess the roles of the spatial and environmental factors in structuring zooplankton metacommunities. We used Moran’s eigenvector map and asymmetric eigenvector map to model the influences of river connectivity, directionality, and man-made dams on zooplankton metacommunity structure. We then used partial redundancy analysis to identify individual and interactive effects of spatial and environmental factors on both the entire zooplankton assemblages and two zooplankton groups of different body sizes and mobility. A total of 101 taxa were identified and taxa richness was higher in the wet season (72) than in the dry season (58). Zooplankton assemblages were primarily dominated by rotifers. For the dry season, environmental factors such as total nitrogen, water temperature, and pH explained a significant portion of variation in zooplankton community; river connectivity was more important than river directionality to zooplankton metacommunity structure. For the wet season, spatial factors were more influential than environmental factors such as dissolved oxygen and water transparency; river directionality played an important role in influencing the spatial structures of both environmental condition and zooplankton metacommunity. We also found significant effects of man-made dams on zooplankton metacommunity structure. Spatial factors are more influential in structuring small body size and weak mobility rotifer communities, while environmental factors are more important in determining the variation of crustaceans due to their larger body size and stronger mobility. We concluded that river connectivity and directionality should be considered as key factors for better understanding the spatial processes of planktonic passive dispersers in river networks. Our study provides new insight on understanding riverine zooplankton metacommunity ecology and contributes to the knowledge of river ecosystem health monitoring and management.

A research process and criteria–indicators framework for developing indigenous freshwater ecosystem health monitoring

Indigenous Australians’ rights, interest and priorities for water management are currently recognised only to a limited extent in Australian water management policies and decision-making processes. Research has demonstrated that water monitoring based on the values, knowledge and interests of indigenous communities has empowered them in negotiating greater involvement in water management. We hereby present a case study focused on developing water monitoring that is an expression of an Indigenous Australian community’s interests and vision for management. The monitoring system takes the form of a set of criteria and indicators for freshwater ecosystem health. From the case study, we derive a research process aimed at developing similar criteria and indicator frameworks for water monitoring applicable in other collaborative community-based water monitoring research initiatives.

Patterns of trace element bioaccumulation in jellyfish Rhizostoma pulmo (Cnidaria, Scyphozoa) in a Mediterranean coastal lagoon from SE Spain

The effects of an abandoned mining area, exploited for centuries in the mining district of Cartagena-La Union, result in a continuous supply of heavy metals into the Mar Menor coastal lagoon after rain episodes. As a consequence, concentration of trace elements in water column and sediments of this ecosystem is usually higher than in other areas. For monitoring ecosystem health, this study assessed the ability of Rhizostoma pulmo to bioaccumulate trace elements. A total of 57 individuals were sampled at eight different sampling stations during the summer of 2012. Although the concentrations of different analyzed elements (Al, Ti, Cr, Mn, Fe, Ni, Cu, Zn, As, Cd, Sn, and Pb) were moderate, bioconcentration levels in relation to seawater metal concentration were extremely high. In any case, the use or disposal of these organisms should consider their metal content, because of their potential environmental and health implications.

Incorporating species losses and gains into a fish-based index for stream bioassessment increases the detection of anthropogenic disturbances

The taxonomic completeness index (ratio of observed to expected species; O/E) is widely used in stream bioassessment programs to infer ecological impairment. However, its sensitivity to detecting anthropogenic disturbances may be reduced by (1) the modelling procedure used to determine the expected species at a site (2) the inability of the index to account for assemblage shifts through species gains as well as losses; and (3) the frequent use of a threshold that only allows assessment of the absence of prevalent species. We used a version of the BC biotic index (an adaptation of Bray-Curtis distance) that incorporated alien and translocated species into the observed component, and generated expected native species probabilities using single species ensemble models (‘BCA’). Sensitivity analysis, bivariate correlations and multiple linear regression analyses were used to test whether BCA better detected anthropogenic disturbances than the standard BC (i.e. without alien and translocated species) and O/E50 derived from the same models. We also tested three additional fish biotic indices currently used in the Ecosystem Health Monitoring Program in Southeast Queensland, Australia. Of the indices tested, BCA explained the greatest amount of variance in anthropogenic disturbance variables, followed by BC and the proportional sample abundance of alien species. The BCA index was 18% more sensitive to detecting non-reference conditions, 20% more responsive to an anthropogenic disturbance gradient, and had twice the number of significant bivariate correlations with disturbance variables than the O/E50 index derived from the same underlying predictive model. We suggest that the improved performance of BCA relative to O/E50 lies in its ability to detect the addition of alien, translocated, and some native species whose traits allow them to persist or thrive in degraded conditions, and the inclusion of low prevalence taxa that may be sensitive to mild levels of disturbance. Given that generation of the BCA index requires no further information than already provided by traditional multivariate predictive models, we recommend its inclusion into bioassessment programs that use multivariate fish based indices.

Metabarcoding of marine zooplankton: prospects, progress and pitfalls

Metabarcoding (large-scale taxonomic identification of complex samples via analysis of one or few orthologous DNA regions, called barcodes) is revolutionizing analysis of biodiversity of marine zooplankton assemblages. Metabarcoding relies on high-throughput DNA sequencing (HTS) technologies, which yield millions of DNA sequences in parallel and allow large-scale analysis of environmental samples. Metabarcoding studies of marine zooplankton have used various regions of nuclear small- (18S) and large-subunit (28S) rRNA, which allow accurate classification of novel sequences and reliable amplification with consensus primers, but- due to their relatively conserved nature- may underestimate species diversity in a community. To discriminate species, more variable genes are needed. A limited number of metabarcoding studies have used mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase I (COI), which ensures detection of species-level diversity, but may require group-specific primers and thus result in inconsistent amplification success rates. Reference databases with sequences for accurately-identified species are critically needed to allow taxonomic designation of molecular operational taxonomic units (MOTU) and comparison with previous studies of zooplankton diversity. Potential and promising applications of metabarcoding include rapid detection of impacts of climate change, monitoring and assessment of ecosystem health, calculation of biotic indices, characterization of food webs and detection of introduced, non-indigenous species.

Monitoring Vegetation Coverage and Biomass Using Landsat Thematic Mapper 5 Images in a Foothill Artemisia-Ephemeral Rangeland of Uzbekistan

This paper describes the capability of remote sensing in the monitoring of rangeland vegetation productivities and dynamics in the foothill areas of Uzbekistan, in order to enhance the sustainable utilization of natural resources. Seasonal productivity, including above-ground biomass, density, coverage, foliar chlorophyll, and carotene content, was measured for the Artemisia diffusa, the dominant species of the study area. The Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI), extracted from time-series Landsat TM5 satellite images, was used to obtain pertinent data regarding vegetation coverage and potential productivities. Seasonal precipitation was found to be a key factor in governing soil moisture in the semi-arid foothill rangelands, which directly influence the dynamics of plants and productivities. Precipitation and soil moisture determine the length of the plant growing season and further influence NDVI values. We found that time-series NDVI was significantly correlated with the seasonal green and total above-ground biomass of vegetation and coverage of Artemisia diffusa, soil moisture, and changeable nitrogen. We also found that the foliar chlorophylls of Artemisia diffusa was significantly correlated with the green above-ground biomass (r = 0.44, P < 0.05). The results can contribute to further monitoring of ecosystem health and habitat conditions using remote sensing (RS) as an accurate tool in large rangeland areas.

我国林业遥感研究现状与展望

通过对20多年来遥感技术在我国林业实践中的应用回顾与总结，指出随着遥感技术的发展和应用水平的逐步提高，我国林业遥感已从过去的森林资源数量清查和分类应用逐渐转向森林生态环境调查与评价，森林生态系统健康监测，森林生物物理和生化参数的提取分析等领域，并对我国林业遥感研究前景进行预测。作者认为未来中国林业遥感发展的主要方向是：1) 包容各种新技术，形成新的技术体系，并与国际接轨；2) 利用遥感的优势，研究森林的宏观状况与作用；3) 与森林经营进一步结合。 With the retrospection of the application of remote sensing technology in forestry practice over 20 years, the paper showed that our country’s application of remote sensing had turned from forest investigation and classification to forest environment investigation, forest ecosystem health monitoring, forest biophysical and biochemical parameter inversion, along with the development of remote sensing technology and application. The paper predicted the future of our country’s forestry remote sensing in the end. In the light of the mentioned above, the forest remote sensing perspective of the 21st century in China was predicted. The author put forward to the main developing directions on forest remote sensing of the next century in China, 1) to include all kinds of new technology and form new technology system and join up with international; 2) to study the macroscopic conditions and functions through utilizing the superiority of the remote sensing; 3) to integrate with the forest management.

Capability of GLAS/ICESat Data to Estimate Forest Canopy Height and Volume in Mountainous Forests of Iran

The importance of measuring forest biophysical properties for ecosystem health monitoring and forest management encourages researchers to find precise, yet low-cost methods especially in mountainous and large areas. In the present study, geoscience laser altimeter system (GLAS) on board Ice, Cloud, and land Elevation Satellite (ICESat) was used to estimate three biophysical characteristics of forests located in the north of Iran: 1) maximum canopy height ( ${\text {H}_{{\max}}}$ ); 2) Lorey’s height ( ${{\text H}_{\text{Lorey}}}$ ); and 3) forest volume (V). A large number of multiple linear regressions (MLR) and also random forest (RF) regressions were developed using different sets of variables including waveform metrics, principal components (PCs) produced from principal component analysis (PCA) and wavelet coefficients (WCs) generated from wavelet transformation (WT). To validate and compare models, statistical criteria were calculated based on a fivefold cross validation. Best model concerning the maximum height was an MLR ( ${\text {RMSE}} = {5.0}\;{\text m}$ ) which combined two metrics extracted from waveforms (waveform extent “ ${{\text W}_{\text{ext}}}$ ” and height at 50% of waveform energy “ ${{\text H}_{{50}}}$ ”), and one from digital elevation model (terrain index, TI). The mean absolute percentage error (MAPE) of maximum height estimates was 16.4%. For Lorey’s height, a simple MLR (including ${{\text W}_{\text{ext}}}$ and TI) represented the highest performance ( ${\text {RMSE}} = {5.1}\;{\text m}$ , ${\text {MAPE}} = {24.0}\% $ ). Generally, MLR models had a better performance when compared to the RF models. In addition, the accuracy of height estimations using waveform metrics was greater than those based on PCs or WCs. Concerning forest volume, regression models estimating volume directly from GLAS data led to a better result ( ${\text {RMSE}} = {128.8}\;{{\text m}^{3}}/\text {ha}$ ) rather than volume– ${{\text H}_{\text{Lorey}}}$ relationship ( ${\text {RMSE}} = {167.8}\;{{\text m}^{3}}/\text {ha}$ ).

Metal bioaccumulation pattern by Cotylorhiza tuberculata (Cnidaria, Scyphozoa) in the Mar Menor coastal lagoon (SE Spain).

Coastal lagoons are ecosystems highly vulnerable to human impacts because of their situation between terrestrial and marine environment. Mar Menor coastal lagoon is one of the largest lagoons of the Mediterranean Sea, placed in SE Spain and subjected to major human impacts, in particular the mining of metal sulphides. As a consequence, metal concentration in water column and sediments of this ecosystem is usually higher than in other areas. For monitoring ecosystem health, the present study has assessed the ability of Cotylorhiza tuberculata for bioaccumulating metals from sea water. Up to 65 individuals were sampled at 8 different sampling stations during the summer of 2012. Although the concentration values for different elements considered were moderate (Pb: 0.04-29.50 ppm, Zn: 2.27-93.44 ppm, Cd: 0-0.67 ppm, As: 0.56-130.31 ppm) by dry weight of the jellyfish tissues (bell and oral arms combined), bioconcentration levels in relation to seawater metal concentration were extremely high. In any case, the use or disposal of these organisms should consider their metal content because of their potential environmental and health implications.

A Ramsar-wetland in suburbia: wetland management in an urbanised, industrialised area

Wetlands provide crucial services to support human populations and intrinsic environmental functioning. They are, therefore, recognised at higher-level global conservation treaties down to regional and local environmental management plans. Palaeorecords to understand preimpact conditions and ranges of natural variability are critical, alongside ongoing monitoring of ecosystem health for understanding important wetlands and determining long-term conservation strategies. They also enable effective analysis of human impacts. Towra Point Nature Reserve is an internationally significant wetland complex listed under multiple international conservation agreements, including the 1971 Ramsar Convention. It faces similar challenges to other coastal wetlands globally: sea level rise, changing shoreline conditions, and anthropogenic impacts. Its location within Sydney’s Botany Bay results in high potential for pollutants to enter the wetland complex. This makes ongoing monitoring of the ecosystem critically important. This study has found that arsenic, lead and zinc are relatively elevated in the southern part of the embayment, adjacent to an urban area, where concentrations are near to, or exceeding trigger levels (ANZECC/ARMCANZ 2000). In contrast, in the western part of the embayment contaminant levels are well below trigger values. We propose that these trigger levels should be adopted and incorporated into the Towra Point Plan of Management.

A data-driven method for selecting candidate reference sites for stream bioassessment programs using generalised dissimilarity models

Key issues with defining reference condition for stream bioassessment are (1) equivocal definitions of ‘minimally disturbed’ pressure criteria and wide-ranging approaches to site selection, (2) highly modified regions where near-pristine areas do not exist, leading to management decisions based on inconsistent and unquantified benchmarks and (3) costly field campaigns associated with ‘extensive spatial survey’ approaches. We used generalised dissimilarity modelling (GDM) to classify stream segments into ecotypes, and transparently and efficiently define candidate reference conditions for the Ecosystem Health Monitoring Program (EHMP) assessment area in south-eastern Queensland, a highly modified region with a complex biogeographic history. We modelled fish presence–absence data from 396 sites with GIS-based natural and anthropogenic predictors. Stream segments were classified into ecotypes using the GDM-transformed natural variables so that (1) reference-site selection adequately covered the β-diversity of the study area and (2) we could evaluate the validity of incorporating sites from neighbouring catchments outside of the EHMP assessment area. Relationships between selected anthropogenic variables (the river disturbance index and %stream connectivity) and fish assemblages were used to define pressure criteria and map candidate reference conditions. We conclude by describing a new framework that can be used to select indicator-specific reference sites by GDM and a stratified, probabilistic sampling design.

Estimating Colony Size of the Wrinkle-Lipped Bat,Chaerephon plicatus(Chiroptera: Molossidae) at Gomantong, Sabah, by Quantitative Image Analysis

The Gomantong cave system, Kinabatangan, Sabah (Malaysia) hosts one of the largest bat colonies known from north Borneo. The nightly exodus of Chaerophon plicatus from this site is an economically valuable tourist attraction, and must impose significant controls on the regional ecology. Monitoring ecosystem health requires monitoring bat population size, but no quantitative assessments for the Gomantong colony are available in the literature. Traditional censusing techniques (based on packing density and roost area or on roost exodus counts) yield notoriously unreliable results. Here we have applied innovative image analysis and counting techniques to videographic, photographic and terrestrial laser scanning data obtained in July 2012. The colony exits in a consistent stream along a narrow exit trajectory. The laser scanning of the large cave entrance allowed precise measurement of bat position. Video data provided 0.02-second time resolution. Average flight speed was calculated (10.38 ± 0.85 m/sec), bat ...

High-resolution, low-altitude aerial photography in physical geography

Intertidal landscapes are highly complex and dynamic habitats that exhibit variability over a range of spatial and temporal scales. The spatial arrangement of structure-forming biogenic features such as seagrasses and bivalves influences ecosystem function and the provision of important ecosystem services, though quantification and monitoring of intertidal landscape structure has been hindered by challenges collecting spatial data in the coastal zone. In this study, an intertidal landscape mosaic of eelgrass ( Zostera marina) and blue mussels ( Mytilus edulis) was observed using low-altitude aerial photography from a balloon-mounted digital camera platform. Imagery representing seagrass-bivalve landscape structure was classified and analysed using multiple metrics of landscape composition and configuration at the patch scale and the landscape scale. Patch-scale imagery was compared to a previously collected dataset in order to track temporal changes in seagrass patch metrics over a 26-month period. Seagrass and bivalve patches exhibited distinct spatial patterning at different spatial scales. At the patch scale, the change in seagrass metrics was consistent with patch border expansion at the expense of patch density and integrity. These methods demonstrate a novel approach for collecting high-resolution spatial data that could also be valuable to physical geographers dealing with similar fine-scale landscapes. The application of spatial metrics at multiple spatial scales quantified elements of the configuration and composition of a seagrass-bivalve habitat mosaic and allowed for the tracking of patch metrics through time to depict landscape change. Continued development of landscape metrics within intertidal habitats will increase understanding of the ecological function of these areas with benefits to management and monitoring of ecosystem health.

Monitoring and trend mapping of sea surface temperature (SST) from MODIS data: a case study of Mumbai coast.

Sea surface temperature (SST) is one of the most important parameters in monitoring ecosystem health in the marine and coastal environment. Coastal ecosystem is largely dependent on ambient temperature and temperature fronts for marine/coastal habitat and its sustainability. Hence, thermal pollution is seen as a severe threat for ecological health of coastal waters across the world. Mumbai is one of the largest metropolises of the world and faces severe domestic and industrial effluent disposal problem, of which thermal pollution is a major issue with policy-makers and environmental stakeholders. This study attempts to understand the long-term SST variation in the coastal waters off Mumbai, on the western coast of India, and to identify thermal pollution zones. Analysis of SST trends in the near-coastal waters for the pre- and post-monsoon seasons from the year 2004 to the year 2010 has been carried out using Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectro-radiometer (MODIS) Thermal Infra-red (TIR) bands. SST is calculated with the help of bands 31 and 32 using split window method. Several statistical operations were then applied to find the seasonal averages in SST and the standard deviation of SST in the study area. Maximum variation in SST was found within a perpendicular distance of 5km from the shoreline during the study period. Also, a warm water mass was found to form consistently off coast during the winter months. Several anthropogenic sources of thermal pollution could be identified which were found to impact various locations along the coast.