Mongol State Research Articles

SOME REMARKS ON THE ULUS (PEOPLE) OF JOCHIAS SEEN BY THEIR CONTEMPORIES

Abstract. The Ulus of Jochi, better known as the Golden Horde, was a western Mongol state founded in the middle of the thirteenth century following the Mongol conquest of the Qipchaq Steppe and the Rus’ principalities. It was named “Ulus of Jochi” because it was ruled by the heirs of Jochi (d. 1225), Chinggis Khan (r. 1206–27)’s eldest son. This paper will examine how the Jochid ulus (in the sense of people) were identified in the sources composed in the Turko-Mongol states of the Mongol and post-Mongol periods. More specifically, it will conduct a brief but broad-range examination of Ilkhanid, Timurid, Shibanid Uzbek, Crimean Tatar, Ottoman, and “Kazakh” sources in order to investigate the nature of Jochid ulus identity as understood by their contemporaries. The thesis that this paper will defend is that the Jochid people, who were identified as Jochi eli as well as Uzbek, Tatar, and Toqmaq in various sources, were viewed as one and the same people by their contemporaries, and that the modern Kazakhs, whose ancestors were identified with these group identities in the sources, are the most representative descendants of the Jochid ulus. As a result of the study, the author focused on different opinions regarding the history of the development of the Zhoshi ulus and unified historical data relating to the period of existence of the ulus.

Нүүдэлчдийн хот суурин ба давхар хэрэмт байгууламжийн судалгаа (Дов дэрсийн турийн жишээн дээр)

The ruins of the double-walled city in Mongolia were compared to the structure of the Dov Ders ruins on the southeast slope of Jargalant mountain in the Bayanmunkh soum area of Khentii Province, Mongolia, which is located to the east of Ulaanbaatar. Archeological evidence indicates that ancient Mongol states used the double-earth walls as a means of defense. We predict that the date of the ruins of Dov Ders may relate to the Mongol Empire period. The indication that ‘city 城郭 (chéngguō) has outer and inner earthen walls’ that were mentioned in ancient Chinese sources, could be the description of the double-walled structure found in Mongolia that covers a long period of history.

The Mongols in the book "Akhbar Al-Duwal Wa-Athar AlUwal fi Al-Tarikh'' by Al-Qarmani (D. 1019 AH / 1610 AD

The news of the Mongols was numerous and the historical narratives varied about their origins, their history, their most prominent rulers and their military campaigns, and their impact on changing the map of the Islamic countries politically, economically, socially, and historically, given that they were new races diverse in their customs, traditions, and religions, as well as the brutality they were characterized by in their invasion of the countries that they controlled, especially at the beginning of their appearance on The scene of events. Therefore, several historians referred to the historical events related to them in all their details, and some of them quoted from those who preceded them and added to the same events, and some of them lived with the Mongols and others did not, and others referred to them briefly and briefly, referring to the most important things mentioned about them and their most important and most prominent rulers. Al-Qarmani is one of them. Among these historians, it is possible to refer to various narrations about the Mongols, quoting from several historians who preceded him and what he heard about them. He referred to their historical origins and information about Genghis Khan, Hulagu, and several Ilkhanate who ruled the Mongol state in Persia, and the most important events that occurred to them.

몽골제국 자르구(ǰarɤu)와 그 지역적 변주

This study explores Mongol legal culture and its method of realizing justice by reconstructing the operation of the ǰarɤu as “a trial” in the Mongol state in the 13th and 14th centuries and identifying the institution’s effects on the empire. Despite its historical importance, the Mongol ǰarɤu has not been given sufficient attention by historians.BR The ǰarɤu, both a bench trial and a joint trial, inherited the universal legal culture of the Mongol steppe. The ǰarɤuči, civil officials, envoys, or community-leaders conducted joint hearings and trials endorsed by joint signature or sealing. The advent of both the name and practice of ǰarɤu thus heralded a new pluralistic legal culture in East Asia.BR The ǰarɤu consisted of three elements: appointment (yuehui 約會), joint discussion and settlement (gongyi 共議 and 斷事 duanshi), and ǰarɤuči and envoys (chailai guan 差來官). These elements acted either independently or collectively as they spread throughout the empire and, as a consequence, evolved diversely. For example, the ǰarɤu found broad acceptance as the yārghū in the Persian culture. In Islamic society, the yārghū functioned as a joint trial in which the yārghūchīs of the great amirs, shaikhs, and qāḍīs gathered to decide cases. The three elements of the ǰarɤu translated into Chinese culture and transformed the institution in various ways. The ǰarɤu was interpreted and transformed into six different vocabularies in Chinese culture beyond its transliteration of the zhaerhu 札兒忽: liwen 理問, huiwen 會問, yuewen 約問, juwen 聚問, zawen 雜問, and zazhi 雜治.BR As the ǰarɤu’s translations and variants continued the practice of joint or group discussion, Mongol-style justice penetrated the whole territory of the great Qan. In the wake of imperial expansion, ǰarɤu began to appear not only to China, Korea, Uyghuristan, Central Asia, and Persia, places far beyond the Mongolian steppes, to peoples of various religions and ethnicities.BR In short, the ǰarɤu constituted the legal culture of the steppe tradition and the universal litigation and trial system of the Mongol empire. It could achieve unity within the empire while instituting “open” justice through a mobile network under the principles of the yuehui (appointment), joint discussion, and the mobility of judges. It also introduced an innovative form of pluralism thanks to its system of joint interrogation and trial. The ǰarɤu continued to play a role in East Asian legal culture, in such forms as the huishen 會審 in Ming China and the jabchi 雜治 (zazhi in Chinese) of Joseon Korea. Accordingly, it helped to dismantle the traditional legal system of the lüling 律令 that prevailed since after the Tang dynasty.

ИСТОРИЧЕСКАЯ ГЕОГРАФИЯ МОНГОЛЬСКОЙ ИМПЕРИИ В СРЕДНЕВЕКОВОЙ ЭНЦИКЛОПЕДИИ ШИХАБ АД-ДИНА АЛ-ОМАРИ

The article describes the work of the Arab scientist, geographer, historian, encyclopedist Shihab al-Din Ahmed ibn Yahya ibn Fadlallah al-Omari al-Dimashkhi who lived in Damascus in 1301-1349. He worked as the secretary of the Egyptian sultan, which, according to medieval customs, passed to him from his father. Shihab al-Din al-Omari is the author of the geographical and historical encyclopedia «Masalik al-Absar fi mamalik al-Amsar» («Ways of looking at states with large cities»), which consists of 2 parts and 32 volumes. (Nysanbaev, 1998: 50) The encyclopedia contains very valuable information about the Great Mongol State, the Golden Horde State, the Chagatai Ulus, the Ilkhanate, that is, it gives information about the territories occupied by the Mongol Empire in the light of historical events. His descriptions are based on the stories of eyewitnesses, or those who have been in distant countries for a long time. Because he had direct access to archives and a wide range of contacts with medieval officials. In addition, the author had a good idea of the works of his contemporaries, but used them very little. All this gives his work a businesslike character.

The Religious Toleration Policy of the Mongols and its Diplomatic Significance for Relations with the Holy See in the Thirteenth Century

The appearance of the Mongols on the international arena was met with mixed reactions. The Catholic world was no exception. In the West, the fact that the Mongols put an end to the Muslim, Khwarazm Shahs state was positive towards the new people, and they thought about creating a joint anti-Muslim coalition. Nevertheless, of course, there were serious doubts about the identity and intentions of the Mongols. In this article, we will try to find out what is the phenomenon of "Pax Mongolica" and its causes are. What is the role of religious tolerance policy for Mongols, in relations with the Catholic world? In addition, the purpose of the article is to explain the mission of Georgia in regulational process of the Union between Vatican and the Mongol Empire. XIII century is time of major changes in the international politics. We believe that its fundamental study, especially in the context of such a special issue for the modern society, as a religious tolerance is, will be useful not only for Georgian, but also for non-Georgian historiography. For the purposes of the article, the research used mainly the historical-system method. In addition, historical-comparative and critical methods of analyzing sources will be used. Using the hermeneutical method, we studied the reliability of the information provided in the source, the mentality of the authors of the source and the purpose of its creation. The scientific novelty of the article can be considered not only a new interpretation of the reason for religious tolerance of the Mongols, but also the definition and assessment of the role of Georgia in relations between the Tatars and the Vatican. The study concludes that the religious tolerance of the Mongols was dictated not only by religious, but also by political, trade and economic motives. Their tolerant policy confused the Catholic world: the West hoped to eventually practice the Catholic religion in the Ilkhan and the Golden Horde. At the same time, the Vatican and Hulaguians had a common enemy - the Sultanate of Egypt. Accordingly, these factors contributed to the establishment of friendly relations between them. As for the second Mongol state, the Ulus of Jochi, the peaceful coexistence between them and the Catholic world was mainly due to economic factors. Georgia- a vassal of the Ilkhanate, which, despite its split, maintained good relations with the Vatican, automatically became a mediator between the two allies. Thus, the religious policy of the Mongols further simplified relations with the West and the conquered people. "Pax Mongolica" contributed not only to the long existence of the conquered people in the Empire, but also to the deepening of trade and economic relations between the West and the East.

On the Byzantine-Mongol Marriages

The article focuses on the rapprochement between Byzantium and the Mongols from the 1250s which resulted in marriage alliances between Mongol Khans and Byzantine despoinas (princesses). The key issue is a clash of two different approaches. The Byzantine one was focused on the exclusive status of Byzantium as Christian Roman Empire, whose status was unrivalled and whose sovereigns seldom allowed marriages of Byzantine ladies to the foreign rulers, especially if the latter were heathen or Muslim. The Mongol view considered the Mongol state as the only one destined to dominate over other states. Here, the marriages between Mongol rulers and foreign brides have been suggested as one of vital elements of such domination. The compromise between two views seemed to have been made by the Byzantines: while the Byzantine church law refused to recognize interconfessional marriages, the Byzantines began to see these marriages as a Christian mission of sorts as the Greek brides and wives could have served as agents for spreading Greek Orthodox Christianity. Given the fact that some Khans had already converted to Islam prior to the marriage, these were also the first marriages between the Byzantine Imperial dynasty of the Palaiologoi and the Muslim rulers. It seems that special tolerance of the Mongols towards Christianity (even if they were Muslims) played a key role in the change of the principles of the Byzantine marriage policy: it henceforth became possible for the Emperor’s illegitimate daughter to marry a Muslim ruler. This policy affected the marriages of the later period of the fourteenth and fifteenth century between the imperial dynasties of the Palaiologoi and Grand Komnenoi, on the one hand, and the neighboring Turkish rulers, including the Ottomans, on the other.

Reflection of Mongolian imperial ideas in the medieval Byzantium sources

The article uses materials of Byzantine historical works of the XIII-XIV centuries to further develop the author’s work in the sphere of Imperial ideology of the medieval Mongols. The special geopolitical position of Byzantium, as well as controversies among descendants of Genghis Khan, have caused peculiarities of its relations with the Mongol Empire, and later with the states of Juchids and Khulaguids, and allowed it to remain independent. Byzantine historians described the Mongols from the position of external observers, so their information is relatively scarce, but important for understanding the goals of the Mongol conquerors in the region and their views on the world order. Analysis of information provided by George Pachymeres, Nicephorus Gregoras, and other Byzantine intellectuals suggests that the Mongol leaders demonstrated considerable flexibility in their foreign policy and did not show any claims to world domination. The sources also reproduce a number of stories concerning the Mongols, which are also known from the Christian historiography of the South Caucasus and the Middle East, in particular, they speak out the idea of nomads who invaded the cultural lands as a “scourge of God”, but they are still far from an eschatological interpretation of the Mongol invasion and do not interpret it in terms of “the whole world”. They do not express thoughts about the need to submit to this inevitable evil. Byzantine authors describe quite accurately the goals of Mongol conquest campaigns and diplomatic activities of the Mongol leaders. It can be assumed that relations between Byzantium and the Mongol states were built on an equal basis, or the Byzantine authors carefully avoided any hints of inequality in their works. The image of Genghis Khan drawn in the analyzed sources does not contain anything messianic or heroic; moreover, not all authors know who exactly was a founder of the Mongol Empire, and they attribute the leadership of Genghis Khan’s military campaigns to his descendants. Thus, the Mongol “imperialism” in the Byzantine sources is very poorly traced, which, however, does not detract from their value in reconstruction of the mental climate of the Mongol Empire and its historical successors.

Chinese Language and Confucianism as an Instrument of Mongolian Adaptation in China during Yuan Epoch (13th–14th Centuries)

The article is devoted to the topic of the acculturation of the Mongol conquerors in China after the conquest by the first heirs of Genghis Khan and the creation of the Yuan Empire — the Mongol state in China. The history of China in the 13th-14th centuries, when the country was conquered by its neighbors, is a vivid example of the relationship between a nomadic and a centuries-old sedentary ethnos. At that time, the Chinese language and the teachings of Confucius became instruments for the acculturation of the Mongols. Having conquered China, the Mongol rulers were forced to master the Chinese culture to most effectively rule the country. As a result, the Yuan era was marked by intense cultural contacts, which makes it possible to trace the changes in the objective parameters of the Chinese language. However, the Mongolian influence itself played only a complementary role in the long process of interaction of the Chinese language with the languages of the steppe peoples of Central and East Asia.

The Features of Political and Religious Development of Oirats in the middle of the XIV - the middle of the XV centuries

The period starting from the second half of the XIV century. and up to the middle of the 15th century, had held under the sign of the fall of the Mongol Yuan Dynasty in China, and it was the most important one in the history of the Eastern Mongols and Oirats. Until then, the rule that only representatives of the Golden Family (that is, the descendants of Genghis Khan) were able to receive power to govern over Mongols, was, in fact, not questioned, but later the various interpretations began to appear. For example, Oirats, as non-Genghisids, had to assert their power, possessing only second roles (Taishi - the first minister). Despite the internal turmoil and the struggle with the descendants of the Yuan rulers, the Oirats did to try to create the united Mongol state headed by Taishis from the Choros Oirat clan. After a long struggle with the Eastern Mongols (who sometimes had also been led by Oirats, for example Ugechi Khashig and his son Esehu) of such Oirat leaders as Batula, Batubolo, Taiping and Toghon, the son of the latter, Esen, managed to not only to unite the Oirats in a short time, but also to create the united Mongolian state. In addition, he revived the religious and political role of the sangha, most likely the teachings of black-caped hat Karma Kagyu. This act was especially important because, besides the ideological counterweight to the right of Genghisids, one should have responded to the growth of Islamic activity in the region.

On the Question of the Two Mongol States in the Early XIII Century

The problem of the two Mongol states in the early XIII century, which is little researched in Mongolian studies, was reported about in 1216 in the work “Jianyan yi lai chao ye za ji” by the South Sun scientist Li Xinchuan. It is noted that one state founded by Genghis Khan was located in Mongolia, the other in the lower streams of the Amur. The results of the latest studies of the ethnogenesis of the Mongols and the history of the names of the r. Amur are used in the article. The issue of the original homeland of the Mongols is being considered. An assumption has been put forward that this is the Ergune-kun area, located on the right bank of the Argun. As an initial variant for the name mongol , the form of mangol is reconstructed with the semantics ‘those who live on the river “Mangu”. It is proved that since ancient times Argun and Amur were represented by different peoples as one river, called Mangu . It is reported that the Tungus-Manchu tribes of the lower stream of the Amur, by the collective nickname received from the outside, were known as manguni — “people of the Mangu River”. It is determined that the Chinese of the community of mangol and manguni called the same name — mengu , which designated the Mongols. It is emphasized that they also applied a common name to the polities that existed among them — Da mengu go. It was established that these facts and a number of other external coincidences in both groups misled Li Xinchuan, forcing him to consider the polity of the Lower Amur Manguns as a Mongol state. It is stated that this was reflected in his work, forcing modern researchers to make mistakes.

In the Shadow of the Mongol Empire: Ming China and Eurasia. By David M. Robinson (New York, Cambridge University Press, 2020) 372 pp. $99.99

<i>In the Shadow of the Mongol Empire: Ming China and Eurasia</i>. By David M. Robinson (New York, Cambridge University Press, 2020) 372 pp. $99.99

JALOLIDDIN MANGUBERDI'S MARTIAL ARTS, TACTICS AND THEIR ROLE IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF MEDIEVAL EAST MARTIAL ARTS

Despite the fact that the Khorezmshah-Anushtegin state took the first blow in the Mongol invasion of the West and had more military forces than the Mongol army, most of the reasons why the state failed to organize defense in the border regions and inside the country and why it was defeated by the Mongols. has attracted and continues to attract attention. In particular, the inhabitants of a number of its cities (including Gurganj, the capital of the Khorezmshahs) and many military units resisted the invaders with their lives and inflicted heavy losses on them, but were eventually defeated by the Mongols. In particular, the last Khorezm king Jalaliddin Manguberdi (Mankburni) fought against the Mongols to the last breath and undoubtedly became known as the strongest and most courageous opponent of the Mongol invaders, and even Genghis Khan and the Mongol invaders themselves acknowledged this. historical processes related to it also fully confirm. The solution to this problem, of course, lies first and foremost in finding full answers to the questions of both sides - the rivals: the Khorezm Shahs and the Mongol states, their martial arts, their level of armament, fighting methods and army structure. In this regard, this article focuses not only on the military potential of the Khorezm kings, military strategy and tactics in the country, but also on the art, tactics of Jaloliddin Manguberdi and its role in the development of martial arts in the Middle East. The problem has been analyzed mainly on the basis of new views and approaches.

AUTONOMOUS STATE AS A POLITICAL CATEGORY AND TOOL OF STRATEGIC PRESENCE

The article attempts to derive the definition of an autonomous state and a set of its key features ( characteristics) proceeding from existing foreign and domestic scientific materials. Although such a category is not present in wide political discourse, the existence of states (or state-like entities) with an autonomous status is still a reality that requires a scientific assessment. The relevance of the stated problems is due to the historical events that took place in the region of East Asia in the first half of the twentieth century. And for objective or subjective reasons, they require scientific and social rethinking. One of these events is the role and importance of Mongolia (then - Outer Mongolia / Mongolian People’s Republic) in the events preceding and accompanying the Second World War and the Great Patriotic War. Another event may be the creation of an “alternative” Mongol state in the occupied territories of Northern China by the Japanese military command. And if the current state of international relations in the region allows us to argue that the military presence of powers that are unfriendly to Russia in East Asia is not expected in the expected future, then we cannot speak with the same confidence about other instruments of strategic presence, including socalled “soft power.” That is why studying the experience of building a regional political order is an important task, to the solution of which the scientific community must also be connected.

Mongol Eurasia in the Trecento Veneto

When the tomb of Cangrande della Scala (d. 1329), ruler of Verona, was opened in 1921, it was found to contain an array of silks from Central Asia. These textiles are a reminder of the important links between the Veneto and Eurasian trade around 1300 - l’eta di Marco Polo. With the rise of the interconnected Mongol states from the mid-thirteenth century, Venice became a gateway between Europe and the Asian world: people and ideas, as well as materials and objects of value, moved as both commodities and gifts. This essay explores some of the ways that Mongol Eurasia penetrated the collective imagination and material culture of the fourteenth-century Veneto. The goal is to think about the larger context and implications of these links, and Venice’s function within them. What emerges is less a fascination with the exotic than an inclination to absorb new images, stories, materials, and objects into the native cultural models.

몽원 제국 시기 ‘종교’의 정의에 대한 재검토 - 유대인, 白雲宗, 儒人의 비교를 중심으로 -

This article examines how the ruling Mongols perceived and understood the different “religions,” focusing on the less familiar, the more minor “religions” during the Mongol rule of China. Specifically, it will focus on the Jews, White Cloud Sect (baiyunzong 白雲宗) and the Confucians. Although most modern scholars would generally agree that these three religions would all fit into what we would call “religions,” the analysis in this research demonstrates that the status of each of the three different religions differed significantly. Unlike the Buddhists, Daoists, Christians, and Muslims, the Jews were often treated as a subgroup of the generic “westerners (huihui 回回)” and did not receive the tax exemption privileges. The White Cloud Sect once established themselves as a separate sect from the larger Han Chinese Buddhists, but due to their reliance of influential individuals such as the Yanglianzhenjia and Danba, their influence in the central court quickly diminished after the death of these two figures. In the early days of the Mongol empire, Confucians were often grouped with other religions, but later the Mongol treated them as a group of individuals who could contribute to the Mongol empire through their knowledge and education. In other words, in the eyes of the Mongols, the three different “religions” were not merely the same, and the relationship between each religion and the Mongol state determined each religions fact. And in that sense, I argue that emphasis on the rulers, and focus on the relation between the empire and subjects can be another useful way to approach and analyze “religions” in history.

Reflections on the Islamization of Mongol Khans in Comparative Perspective

AbstractThis paper compares the process of Islamization in the three westernmost Mongol states: the Chaghadaid Khanate in Central Asia; the Ilkhanate in Iran and Iraq; and the Jochid ulus (the Golden Horde) in the Pontic-Caspian steppes and the Volga region. It explores in greater depth the hallmarks of conversion, the agents of, and the motives for, Islamization and the limitations of its effects on royal policy. In particular, it highlights the tension between Islamic notions and the concept of religious pluralism that was central to the corpus of Mongol law (Yasa) established by Chinggis Khan.

Roots of the Mongolian State: Genghis Khan’s Survival and Pragmatism as related in the Secret History of the Mongols

The genesis of the first Mongol State (1206) was overseen and led by Genghis Khan, whose conquests remain a formidable historical series of events. The Secret History of the Mongols narrates his biography as a tale of surviving repeated life threats and defeating major enemies. From this history, I have extracted an existential framework to explain how he survived in a dangerous natural, social and political environment. The rise of this State compressed what occurred in most other historical States, and I will summarize my Anthrocentric Security Theory as general explanation of this phenomenon, drawing on Western philosophy, especially philosophical anthropology. The framework consists of four levels of Being - state of nature, life- community, State, and civil society. Each level has enabled humans to devise several Security Action Platforms from which are launched particular security actions, culminating in the State. Successful in three stages, but not in creating a civil society, the Mongol State assimilated and absorbed the strengths of natural men and life-communities, enabling the expansion into Eurasian empire under his sons and grandsons.

The Empire of Tamerlane as an Adaptation of the Mongol Empire: An answer to David Morgan, “The Empire of Tamerlane: An Unsuccessful Re-Run of the Mongol State?”

AbstractI write this article in the spirit of the Persian poetic tradition, in which an answer to an earlier work takes off from the original and charts its own course. I will suggest that Tamerlane's recreation of the Mongol Empire was symbolic, and was part of his successful creation of a regional state which was at once Turco-Mongolian and Perso-Islamic. His experiment was continued and elaborated by his successors, and the resulting state provided a highly useful model for later dynasties in the Middle East and Central Asia.Through my long engagement with Mongols and Turks, David Morgan's influence and aid have been a constant advantage and his friendship a recurring pleasure. Our acquaintance began in 1987 with a kind letter he sent me after reading the manuscript forThe Rise and Rule of Tamerlanefor the Cambridge University Press. Since then I have profited from his scholarship, have used his two books to teach generations of students, and have called on him for uncountable letters of recommendation, always generously given. I also want to thank David for asking me to write the Mongol chapter for theNew Cambridge History of Islam, and thus attracting me into the Mongol period. It may seem odd to express my gratitude by writing an answer to David's article which is not entirely in agreement with his conclusions. I trust in the well-known openness of his mind and assume that he will take this in the spirit in which it is offered, as the continuation of many years of discussion.

Formation of the Nationhood of the Mongolian-speaking Peoples of Innermost Asia

In the article authors describe the process of statehood within the borders of the historical-cultural space of Inner Asia in terms of its consistency and legitimacy, on the basis of the researches and developments of leading Russian and foreign scientists. There is an attempt to highlight the statehood models of the Mongolian peoples. The history of the unified Mongol state development, the process of decay and fate under the rule of the Qing Dynasty are traced. The authors draw attention to the contractual nature of the Manchu imperial power over Mongolia, and conditional voluntary transfer of power, that was used by the Outer Mongolia that proclaimed independence in 1911. Despite the fact that the sovereignty of Khalkha (Outer Mongolia) was not recognized by any state until 1945, it was able, with the support of first imperial and then Soviet Russia, to achieve the de facto independence of the head of the Buddhist Church - Bogd Gegen. He assumed the title of the Great Khan as the continuity of statehood of Genghis Khan. As an example of a failed attempt to achieve independence was the example of Inner Mongolia, which after the Xinhai Revolution tried to get the status of an independent state by repeating it in the years of 1933- 1945. However, in both cases, the actions of the Mongolian aristocracy did not lead to the desired result, and during the Japanese occupation of Northeast China they provoked the dukes for the traitorous act and moved them to the side of the Japanese. It resulted in the creation of the Mongol-Go state or (later) Mengjiang that during the study period claimed the leadership of the Mongolian people in the world and was liquidated in August 1945, by the Soviet Union and Mongolian troops after Japan's defeat in World War II. DOI: 10.5901/mjss.2015.v6n6s3p46