Mongol Empire Research Articles

Alanian Military Units in Military-Administrative Structure of the Mongol Empir

The purpose of the paper is to study the question of the rank of the Alanian military units in the Mongolian imperial military-administrative order. The relevance of the study is determined by the absence in the scientific tradition of researches on this issue, while it contains studies of questions about the place of the Alans in the military-administrative system of the Yuan Empire and about their service to the Mongol ulus rulers. The result of the study was the conclusion that after the Western campaign, some representatives of the Alanian power elite became vassals of the “Golden Lineage” of Genghis Khan, that ruled the Mongol Empire, the actual unity of which remained until 1271. Some of the retinues of the Alanian rulers were left in Alanya, while the other part of them, together with some of the rulers, was taken to serve in the guards of Genghiskhanid Mongke and went with him to Central Mongolia. After the elevation of Möngke on the Mongol throne in 1251, these Alans, like the Alans that went to Mongolia by recruitment in 1254, served in the retinue of the Mongol emperor and, probably, guarded the Mongol capital Karakorum. The study used methods of comparative historical analysis, inductive and deductive methods, system-chronological and retrospective-analytical methods, as well as methods of scientific translation of texts of medieval Chinese chronicles.

몽골제국시기 술 문화의 남북교류

This study examines the exchange and influence of alcohol, often hailed as the greatest gift bestowed upon humanity, as it traversed the Eurasian continent from east to west and vice versa. Rather than being a mere beverage for enjoyment, alcohol should be regarded as a cultural heritage born from the fusion of local products and cultures. This paper gathers historical records on wine to explore how the people of the Mongol Empire enjoyed wine, and investigates the spread and diffusion of fermented beverages like Maotai and the distilled spirits derived from them, shedding light on the North-South cultural exchange of alcohol during the early 13th century in the steppe and the central plains.
 In particular, the invention of distillation apparatus and the activities of Islamic merchants contributed to the vast dissemination of distilled spirits throughout the vast regions of Eurasia, giving rise to various types of alcohol such as arrack and soju in the east, and whisky, brandy, vodka, and tequila in the west. This, too, can be seen as a result of extensive cultural exchange between the East and the West. The active exchange of alcohol during the era of the Mongol Empire was made possible by the empire's expansion of territories in all directions, establishing an empire that not only exerted political and military control over neighboring countries but also provided opportunities for subordinate ruling classes to participate in advanced civilization. Additionally, the empire secured hubs for exchanging goods between border regions and central cities, leading to the flourishing of economic exchanges, both public and private, between regions.
 This paper examines how the spread of alcohol in East Asia occurred in both the northern and southern directions, centered around the Mongol Empire, during different periods before and after the empire's existence. Contrary to our general assumption that alcohol spread unilaterally from China to Southeast Asian countries, it was confirmed that various types of fermented beverages produced in the region were introduced to China as trade developed. Likewise, distilled spirits were introduced to China through maritime and overland trade routes, and with the construction of a universal empire, the spread of these alcoholic beverages to other regions became more active, contributing to their popularization. This, too, can be seen as a cultural exchange phenomenon brought about by Pax Mongolica.

Քրիստոնյա կանայք մոնղոլական կայսրությունում.նրանց դերը և ազդեցությունը հպատակ ժողովուրդների նկատմամբ (13-14-րդ դդ.)

The purpose of the study is to present the role of Christian women in the Mongol Empire, as well as their role and influence on the subject peoples in the politics of the Mongol khans in the 13th-14th centuries and the Mongol world as a whole-Pax Mongolica. Sorghaghtani Beki and Uruk, were among the many influential khatuns who directed the hearts of their husbands and sons, the Mongol khans, to welcome and promote the Christian communities in their lands. These Christian women who had an influential role and position in the Mongol court were the mothers and wives of influential rulers of the time. Khatuns, not only played a powerful political role in the politics of their husbands or sons but also in the conversion of their subordinate domains, while also contributing to the spread of Christianity in Europe. They stood out not only for their personal but also for their political and patronage activities.

Silk Road and Trade of the Mongol Empire

Abstract Our ancestors once said, “A person who does not know his history is like a monkey lost in the forest.” In the framework of this work, it was intended to study the historical development of the Silk Road and the characteristics of trade during the Mongol Empire in comparison with the principles of modern trade. According to the findings, ancient nations traded with each other to satisfy their unlimited needs with limited resources and laid the foundations of the Silk Road. On the other hand, the country that dominated the road became the most powerful country at that time, fighting with each other through geopolitical policies to maintain its influence in the area along this road. It can be said that the idea of logistics supply chain and the concept of free trade was created during the time of the powerful Mongolian empire, one of the strongest empire in the history of Mongolia as well as the world.

A Comparative Study of the Military Tactics of the Mongol Empire and Goguryeo Kingdom (Goryeo)

Abstract The study is conducted as a comparative study of military tactics of the powers representing different regions and time periods throughout human history. Despite the differences in circumstance and time, common success factors are identified in the military tactics of the two great powers. Based on these success factors, it is possible to compare the military tactics of these armies using the following common criteria: basic tactical unit system, strategic flexibility, tactical mobility, and strategic planning. The Mongol Empire and Goguryeo Kingdom had long been the dominant military powers in their regions. Also, during the Goryeo Dynasty, which succeeded Goguryeo, the Mongolian army invaded Goryeo and used there creative military tactics. Especially, the Mongol army was one of the greatest in human history, and through its power and military skill, led to the magnificent growth of the Mongol Empire. Thus, this study identifies the success factors of the Mongol military tactics through comparison with Goguryeo military tactics.

Sünnîlik ve Şiîlik Temelinde Emir Timur’un Mezhep Siyaseti

Amīr Tīmūr won the struggle for dominance of the Chagatai society, one of the four parts that emerged after the Mongol Empire was disintegrated. He established his rule-based in Samarkand in the second half of the 14th century. Amīr Tīmūr's struggle with the dynasties formed with the dissolution of Ilkhanid domination in the Khorasan lands, where he expanded his sovereignty after 1370 when he came to power and occupied an important part of his political life. Since Khorasan is an area where Islamic sects spread and settled, it is known as a geography where sectarian conflicts are not lacking and the states establishing administration in the region face problems. While Tīmūr wanted to seize Khorasan to rebuild the Ilkhanid throne, he abolished Shiite dynasties such as Serbedarīs and Marashis and Sunni dynasties such as Kerts and Muzaffarīs. However, he gave an image of supporting Sunnism in his struggle with the Shiites. Similarly, with its harsh attitude towards Hurufis, who originated from Shiism, it did not recognize any movement that it thought was harmful to Sunnism. After capturing the lands of Chaghatay and Īlkhānate, he made expeditions to another Mongolian nation, Altınorda. His campaigns in Anatolia, Syria, and Iraq regions outside the Mongolian zone caused him to come face to face with the states in the area. Based on the practices of Tīmūr, who lost his life in 1405 when he launched his last expedition on China, during his military and political activities, many opinions have been put forward about his understanding of religion and sect. The fact that different interpretations were made due to Tīmūr's personality and religious life and that no study on this subject in the history of sects prompted us to investigate this issue. In this study, we aimed to reveal Amīr Tīmūr's approach to sects and his effects on the political activities he continued throughout his rule. In our study, we benefited from the Zafarnamas of Nizamaddin Shami and Ali Yazdī, who are historians of the Tīmūrid period, and the works of Aja’ib al-Maqdur by İbni Arabshah and the an-Nujum al-Zahirah of the Mamluk Historian Ibn Taghribirdi. We also examined the studies on Feridun Bey Munshaat, in which his correspondence with Sultan Bayezid was recorded. In addition, studies and copyrighted works with the History of Tīmūr were also used. As a result of our examination, it has been seen that Amīr Tīmūr's activities, beyond the religious and sectarian concerns, benefited from all kinds of situations to realize the aim of absolute domination with the influence of the understanding of Turkish and Mongolian sovereignty. While he was seen as the protector of Sunnism against the Shiites in the Khorasan region, he also eliminated the Sunni dynasties in the region. He organized expeditions to the lands of Altınorda, which was also Sunni. Therefore, it is seen that he built the aforementioned regions to unite the Mongol lands directly, not because of the problem arising from any religion and sect. The reason why he abolished the Shiite dynasties in Khorasan and Mazandaran is that they caused problems against the sovereignty of the Shiites. It is understood that he put his political goals on a religious basis by introducing himself as ulū al-amr in his struggle against Sunni dynasties in the Near East, where he launched a campaign for different reasons, such as the Ottoman and Mamluks. Therefore, it is seen that Amīr Tīmūr's military activities were due to political reasons rather than the influence of the Sunni Islam belief. In addition, his support of Sunni scholars and clergy, as well as the Seljuks during his rule, establishing religious offices and bringing Sunnis to these positions, and bringing the Sunni creed to the forefront through the opened madrasas paved the way for the development of Sunnism. In terms of the history of the sects, it has been seen that Ash'arism, which gained strength with the influence of the Nizamiya Madrasahs opened in the Seljuk period, left its place to the Transoxiana-centered Maturidism during the reign of Tīmūr and his successors. * This study was prepared based on the Master's thesis titled “Amīr Tīmūr’s Sectarian Politics based on Sunnism and Shiism”, which was continued under the supervision of Associate Professor Hasan Gümüşoğlu (Yalova: Yalova University, Institute of Graduate Studies, Master Thesis, 2023).

Побежденные перед судом победителей: процессы над мятежниками в период кризиса Монгольской империи (2-я половина XIII в.)

Introduction. The aim of the paper is a study of the evolution of legal relations on the territory of the Mongol Empire in the second half of the 13th century. The subjects of analysis are trials over the members of the ruling imperial family who were defeated during their rebellions and intestine wars. Methods and materials. The sources of the study are medieval oriental sources, including Persian chronicles (by Rashid ad-Din, Mu’in ad-Din Natanzi, Mirza Ulugbek), Chinese dynastic history (“Yuan Shih”), etc. The methods used in the paper are critical analysis of textual sources, historical legal study, formal legal approach, and comparative historical analysis. Analysis. Four judicial processes are analyzed: the trial of Arigh Buqa, defeated by his brother Kubilai in 1264; the trial of Chinggisids over Boraq, head of Chaghatai Ulus, in 1269; the trial of Khubilai over prince Nayan in 1287; and the trial of Ilkhan Gazan over usurper Baydu in 1295. Information from the sources gives a reason to state that trials of defeated nobles reflected the process of decline of the imperial state system and misuse of principles established by Chinggis Khan and his proximate successors. Results. The analyzed information contains valuable additions to our idea of the judicial process in the Mongol Empire, specifically in cases of mutineers compared to other types of cases judged in the Empire and Chinggisid states. It also highlights the evolution of this process during the crisis of imperial power and its differences with the Chinggisid imperial law’s declared observance in the Empire and its uluses.

PRACTICE OF POWER IN ILKHANATE: ANALYSIS OF INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION AND SOCIAL EXCHANGE

<p><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; font-family: 'Cambria',serif; mso-ascii-theme-font: major-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-hansi-theme-font: major-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: 'Times New Roman'; mso-bidi-theme-font: major-bidi; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;" lang="EN-US">Ilkhanate was a Mongol empire located in Persia. There were cultural changes and different forms of practice in exercising government power. However, despite the significance of understanding the practice of power in the Ilkhanate through the lens of communication theories, there is a research gap in exploring the specific dynamics of intercultural communication and social exchange theory within this context. Therefore, this study aims to fill this research gap by examining the interplay between power and communication in the Ilkhanate, mainly through the principles of intercultural communication and social exchange theory. The methodology employed in this research is a comprehensive literature study. The findings of this article highlight the inseparability of communication and power, emphasizing the role of intercultural communication in facilitating harmonious relations between diverse nations, including considerations of race, religion, and customs. Additionally, the rulers of the Ilkhanate strategically employed communication and adapted their policies to gain support from local communities, such as Persians and Arabs, particularly by catering to the Muslim population. This research contributes to understanding power practices and strategies in the Ilkhanate by elucidating their alignment with intercultural communication and social exchange theories.</span></p>

할하와 오이라드 몽골 혼인 관계 원류

The purpose of this article is to examine the continuous marital relationship between the Chinggisid lineage, which was formed in the early 12th century, and the Oyirad tribe until the 17th century, by introducing several cases of marriages that took place between them. As confirmed in The Secret History of the Mongols, the marital relationship with the Chinggisid lineage accelerated Oyirad’s incorporation into the Mongol Empire. However, this marital relationship did not end there, and Oyirad strengthened its position within Mongols by establishing marital relationships with the descendants of Juchi, Chagatai, and Tolui, especially the Hülegü and Arigh Bukha lineages, over several generations. This paved the way for Oyirad to support the Arigh Bukha lineage, including Enke Jorightu Khan, Gün Temür, and others, at the end of the 14th century and the beginning of the 15th century, and to rise to power as a short but powerful lord Esen Khan who unified the East and West Mongols. This article aims to reconstruct the traces of the Oyirad as a main character in the Mongolian history through the marital relationships that lasted for several centuries between them.

『御定宋史筌』 「遼傳」을 통해 본 『宋史』 改修의 역사적 의의

Eojeong Songsa jeon 御定宋史筌 is a rewriting edition of Songshi 宋史 compiled by King Jeongjo and his Gyujanggak subjects in Joseon dynasty. Songsa jeon is characterized by (1) the creation of the imperial biographies of Danzong and Modi, the last emperors of the Southern Song dynasty, (2) the inclusion of Liao, Jin, and Mongol dynasties in its' biographies, (3) the creation of an independent Wuxian Biography for the five Neo-Confucianism scholars from Zhou Dunyi to Zhu Xi, and (4) the creation of Yimin Biography to honor those who had been loyal to the Song dynasty. However, it is difficult to say that the authenticity, which is one of the backgrounds of the compilation of Songsa jeon, has been fully considered. This article compares Liao Biography 遼傳 in Songsa jeon with Liao Biography in Songshi Xinbian 宋史新編 to determine the significance of Songsa jeon's compilation. As can be seen from the legend of Songsa jeon, Joseon dynasty defined Liao and Jin as 'the vulgar ethnic groups in the northeast' and 'the subject states of Goryeo dynasty', and did not recognize Mongol empire as 'authenticity' even after completely destroyed Song. In addition, Goryeo Biography is placed at the top of the biographies of the foreign states to express the criticism, and Liao, Xixia, Jin, and Mongol dynasties are arranged in the order of their founding. The characteristics of Liao Biography in Songsa jeon are as follows. First, Songsa jeon takes the form of the biography more strictly than Songshi Xinbian. Second, Songsa jeon is more thoroughly orthodox than Songshi Xinbian, including the use of Song's reign title. And in terms of content, the records of Qidan Guozhi 契丹國志 cited in Songsa jeon are basically quoted from Xu zizhi tongjian gangmu 續資治通鑑綱目. Furthermore, to express respect for Song, the Battle of Gaoliang River and the Battle of Qigou Pass, in which the Song were greatly defeated from Liao, are described very briefly. In addition, the articles from the Goryeo dynasty were recorded without omission, reflecting the position of Joseon dynasty, the bearer of the compilation. Finally, all the records on Civil Service Examination, Confucianism, and book editings are included in Songsa jeon. Its purpose is to represent the lessons. This indicates the intention that if even Liao, as the barbarian, had developed the rituals and the rites, then Joseon, as 'the inheritor of Chinese culture,' should work even harder to promote the rituals and the rites. Furthermore, considering the arrangement of the biographies of foreign states in Songsa jeon, the placement of Goryeo Biography at the top implies that Goryeo had a more advanced the rituals and the rites than Liao, Jin, Xixia, and Yuan. I think it is the ultimate intention of Joseon dynasty to express from the biographies of foreign states in Songsa jeon. On the other hand, the scholars of Qing Dynasty also tried to revise Songshi, but all of them were not completed. In this sense, the completion of Songsa jeon has historiographical significance.

Horn Ferrules from Excavation at Novgorod the Great and Smolensk

The article deals with tree horn ferrules with dragon images 12th – 13th centuries from Novgorod the Great and Smolensk. Armors and belts with dragon images became a part of the power institute of the Mongol Empire. The Old Russian works of art created under the influence of the Golden Horde are considered frequently as an imitation of more elaborated and process complicated prototypes. A careful study of the iconographic and stylistic features of the three ferrules from Novgorod and Smolensk suggests that the Novgorod find has a direct connection with the Golden Horde tradition, dating back to the art of the Yuan dynasty. The Smolensk finds are an attempt to follow a well-known pattern within the framework of the development of ancient Russian art during the Mongol conquest.

Анализ достоверности «курейшитской генеалогии» Идегея из «Джами ат-таварих» Кадыр Али-бека и трактата «О роде князей Юсуповых»

Research objectives: The purpose of this study is to analyze the reliability of Idegei’s “Kureish genealogy” from the “Jami al-tawarikh” by Kadyr Ali-bek and the treatise “On the family of the Yusupov princes”, as well as the reconstruction of Idegei’s genealogy according to all primary sources known to us. Results and novelty of the research: The materials of the study comprise: “Jami al-tawarikh” by Kadyr Ali-bek; the treatise “On the family of the Yusupov princes” which speaks of the Arab origins of Idegei from Baba Tukles Shashty Aziz, a descendant of Caliph Abu Bakr. However, there are other sources about his origin. Most alternative sources refer to him as originating from the Mongol tribe Mangyt, sometimes indicating the subgenus Ak Mangyt. In the Epic of the Forty Batyrs of Crimea, the genealogy is indicated up to a certain Anshibai, the father of Parparia, who is also known as Baba Tukles Shashty Aziz. In previous publications, we have put forward a hypothesis about the origin of Idegei from Yandzhi, the son of Kurmisha, whom we identified with Anshibai. In this article, this hypothesis is argued further and developed on the basis of data from the Arabic source, Zubdat al Fikr. The theory about the origin of Idegei from Emir Chagan of the Mangyt clan, who lived during the Mongol Empire, is substantiated. The subgenus Ak Mangyt (“White Mangyt”) in the Golden Horde could come from Chagan Noyan (a translation of the name that in Mongolian means “white”) from the clan Mangyt. This article also explains where Idegei’s “Kureish genealogy” came from.

«Значение Золотой Орды для истории Евразии ничуть не меньше, чем значение Византии»: памяти Вадима Винцеровича Трепавлова (1960–2023)

Research objectives: To consider the creative path and the main views of V.V. Trepavlov and his influence on the development of ideas about the ethnic history of the peoples of steppe Eurasia and the national policy of Russia during the Middle Ages and early Modern times. Research materials: The authors in the article relied on numerous scientific publications by V.V. Trepavlov, as well as personal impressions of meetings with him in the process of working on various scientific projects and at scientific conferences. Results and novelty of the research: The authors consider the formation of V.V. Tre­pavlov as a unique specialist who combined excellent source studies and deep knowledge of the history of the steppe peoples of Eurasia from the Mongolian Empire to Imperial Russia with the understanding that these were processes of constant interaction of socio-political and cultural-religious phenomena. His work became an event, because it was distinguished by a strict integrated approach to the problem under study using the entire range of sources, but also by an emphatically scientific approach, avoiding any politicization in every possible way. A stage in the scientific study of the medieval peoples of Eurasia was his work on the Nogai Horde, in which the author presented a complete and exhaustive description of this ethnopolitical formation. He applied this methodology to the study of the formation of a multinational and multi-confessional Russian state and the important role played in these processes by non-Russian peoples, primarily serving Tatars, emphasizing that the tsarist government underwent significant transformations in this process.

Улуг битикчи — тюрко-монгольский институт, интегрированный в систему мусульманской администрации чингизидских государств XIII–XIV вв. (по материалам «Дастур ал-катиб»)

Introduction. The article examines a yarliq from the medieval Persian treatise Dastur al-Katib to characterize the institution of ulug bitigchi that used to be widespread in the Mongol Empire and states of Genghis Khan’s descendants. Goals. The study attempts an interdisciplinary analysis of the historical monument — one yarliq appointing an ulug bitigchi (head of scribes) and contained in Dastur al-Katib fi Tayin al-Maratib (A Scribe’s Guide to Determining Ranks) compiled in the mid-14th century by Persian official Muhammad ibn Hindushah Nakhchivani. Materials and methods. The paper focuses on Dastur al-Katib and the mentioned yarliq proper, involves related medieval sources on Mongol Iran and other Chinggisid states, including works by Juvayni, Rashid al-Din, Fasih Khwafi, etc., official documents of the Chinggisid chancelleries. The work employs a series of historical and legal research methods, such as those of source criticism, diplomatics analysis, comparative historical research, formal legal approach, historical legal and comparative legal analyses. Results. The paper introduces the yarliq appointing an ulug bitigchi from the medieval Persian treatise Dastur al-Katib into Russian-language scientific discourse and supplements it with a detailed interdisciplinary analysis. The work clarifies specific features of an ulug bitigchi’s legal status — including his functions, rights, requirements for candidates in Chinggisid chance­lleries — and traces its evolution. It also shows reasons for the survival of the institution in those states even after the official conversion to Islam and shaping of a corresponding government system in accordance with traditions that had existed across the Volga Region, Iran and Central Asia long before the Mongol conquest. Conclusions. The fact that the institution of ulug bitigchi did survive the subsequent Islamization was to primarily position of Ilkhans as heirs of the Mongol Empire where it had first been established as well as to seek a compromised approach in governing their various subjects — nomadic and sedentary peoples, Turko-Mongols and those who spoke Iranian languages, Moslems and adherents of other religions.

From the Tian Shan to Crimea: Dynamics of Plague Spread during the Early Stages of the Black Death, 1338–46

Abstract The present paper aims to reconstruct tentative ways, in which the Black Death (the first wave of the Second Plague Pandemic) spread from its now-established home in the Tian Shan region to Western Eurasia between c.1338/41 and 1346. On the basis of all the available evidence—textual, palaeogenetic, archaeological, topographic, numismatic and palaeoclimatalogical—the article argues for two phases of the plague spread: (1) the slow phase of c.1338/41–45, hindered by political and commercial crises in the Mongol Empire, but especially the Chaghadaid khanate, as well as by local environmental conditions and (2) the fast phase of 1345–6, once the plague reached the territories of the Golden Horde. As it will be argued, commercial networks, both long-distance and local, across long-distance trade routes (so-called ‘Silk Roads’) played a paramount role in facilitating the spread of the plague. Although not claiming to have solved the mystery of the westbound plague spread, the paper aims to provide a first full-scale study of this kind, raising new research questions and forming a starting point for future research.

Felled Forests and Fallowed Fields: Establishing a Narrative of Ecological and Climate Change in Mongol-Era Goryeo

Abstract: Goryeo (918–1392) was a politically and commercially integrated part of the wider Mongol Empire (1206–1368), while also temporally situated in the difficult transition from the Medieval Warm Period (MWP) to the Little Ice Age (LIA). Yet narratives of Goryeo’s incorporation into the Mongol world remain overwhelmingly focused on politics, economics, and culture. Since Alfred Crosby’s Ecological Imperialism , scholars have increasingly been sensitive to the ecological impacts of imperialism and colonialism, while Geoffrey Parker has highlighted the integral role of climate in human history. This study seeks to combine these two approaches and argues that the confluence of Mongol imperialism and climate change was profoundly impactful on Goryeo’s environment and ecologies. Invasion and incorporation into the Mongol Empire spurred processes of deforestation and agro-ecological transformation, as armies traversed the peninsula, populations were displaced, and capitals were (re)built. Therein, an arguably drier, cooler, and less stable climate compounded anthropocentric agro-ecological dislocation and sylvan ecological disruption. Consequently, political transitions, as in the 1258 fall of the Choe dictatorship and the end of Goryeo itself in 1392, cannot be separated from the climate destabilization of the MWP-LIA transition.

The Family of Minister Al-Sayyid Al-Ajall: A Study of Its Political, Administrative, and Urban Role (7th-8th Century AH / 13th-14th AD)

Objectives: The study aimed to clarify the role of Al-Sayyid Al-Ajall and his family in the service of the Mongol Empire. They worked to develop its administrative and military institutions, benefiting from their extensive experience in administration, politics, economics, and urban affairs. Due to their capabilities, they received the patronage of Genghis Khan and subsequent generations, earning the confidence of the ruling Mongol authority. As a result, they were granted significant powers within the state. Methods: The study relied on the analytical method to analyze historical texts, compare them with others, and discuss them accurately. Results: The study yielded several results, including the minister's keen interest in implementing various reformist and urban projects throughout the country. These projects encompassed the construction of mosques, dams, bridges, markets, and more. Additionally, the minister played a significant role in organizing the state budget, showcasing his expertise and efficiency. Conclusions: The study concluded that Al-Sayyid Al-Ajall exerted every effort to achieve stability in the countries under his rule and promote justice among all. His profound impact on Mongol history and the regions they governed made him an exemplary figure. Additionally, Al-Sayyid Al-Ajall played a crucial role in the spread of Islam across various regions of China. Moreover, he undertook numerous construction projects, including the building of roads, markets, mosques, temples, dams, bridges, river excavation, and the establishment of shelters for orphans and the elderly.

‘The past is becoming the future’: Genghis Khan the environmentalist and the discourses of modernity and legacy concerning proper waste disposal in post-socialist Mongolia

ABSTRACT This paper examines the transformation of the proper site of waste disposal across ecosocial landscapes throughout twentieth century Mongolian history to today. As Western ecological discourses became dominant in public space, they were not set up in a vacuum but rather mixed with vernacular ideas of waste from pre-socialist times as well as socialist cultural campaigns. If Mongolian zero-waste and waste recycling associations claim to belong to international movements and adopt a globalized upper-class eco-habitus, their discourses also reinterpret two imperial and idealized parts of Mongolian history: socialist modernity, when proper waste management was a sign of modernity and culture, and the Mongol Empire, when even Genghis Khan would not have left permanent traces along his path. This article is therefore about the present reinventing the past through ecologist discourses that allow Mongolians to define themselves both as modern and as true Mongols.

О некоторых редких и малоизвестных военных терминах в монгольских летописях XVII в.

Goals. The study attempts etymological analyses of several rare military terms attested in 17th-century Mongol chronicles. The following terms are specifically touched upon in the article: aγuraγ ~ aγuruγ ‘base camp’, bayirildu- ‘to battle each other, fight a battle’, bulγaldu- ‘to fight each other or together’, čaγuraγul- ‘to send on a military campaign’, ide- ‘to capture and plunder (a city)’, nengde- ‘to attack unexpectedly’, niγtarqa- ‘to be in close order’, toyin ‘(military) camp’. All these terms are either totally unattested in the dictionaries of written Mongolian, or used with unique or rare meanings in sources, and reflect important features of military structure in the era of the Mongol Empire. Materials and methods. The paper analyzes three Mongol chronicles of the 17th century, namely: Quriyangγui Altan tobči ‘Brief Golden Summary’ (ca. 1604 to 1634, or mid-to-late 17th century), Erdeni tunumal neretü sudur ‘The Jewel Translucent Sūtra’ (ca. 1607), and Altan tobči ‘Golden Summary’ by Blo-bzaṅ bstan-’jin (ca. 1651 to 1655, or late 17th – early 18th century). The work employs a number of research methods inherent to comparative-historical linguistics and textology. Results. The article presumes the Mongol Empire’s military structure still remained more or less efficient — with some modifications — when the examined Mongol chronicles were being compiled, but completely lost its relevance in subsequent times. In view of this, only a small number of medieval military terms have survived in modern Mongolic languages, sometimes greatly changed in meaning (aγuraγ ~ aγuruγ), used only as obsolete forms (bulγa/bulγaldu-) or bound morphemes (ča’ur). Conclusions. The paper suggests some of the terms are of foreign origin and bear obvious traces of the intensive areal contacts between Mongolic and neighboring languages, notably Turkic (aγuraγ ~ aγuruγ, bulγa(-), toyi/n), Tungusic (nen(g)de-), and Khitan (ča’ur) ones. Some are attested as hapax legomena in individual chronicles (bayirildu-, čaγuraγul-, niγtarqa-), while others articulate highly specific meanings that have no parallels in our sources, and thus either correspond to the semantics of the donor forms (toyi/n) or possibly reflect the influence of local dialects of that time (ide-).

Use of Parts of Ram Carcasses in the Funerary Practices of the Baikal Region Population in the 13th–14th Centuries

In the 13th and 14th centuries, there was a custom of placing parts of a ram/sheep carcass in the grave as an offering in the Baikal region. Materials from three areas, which were then parts of the Mongol Empire, are described: southeastern Trans-Baikal, northern Khövsgöl, and southern Angara. Graves are described with a focus on sheep bones, their composition, and location in the grave. In the southern Trans-Baikal, the shank was usually placed near the buried person’s head. Scapulae and vertebrae are much less frequent than shank bones. The latter are most often found under the human pelvic bones or under the upper femur. In the Khövsgöl area, a ram’s shank was placed near the deceased person’s arm or leg. On the Angara, a ram’s head—or the entire dorsal part—was placed near the deceased’s legs. In the Sayantui type burials, located south of Lake Baikal and representing the Mongols’ funerary tradition of the imperial period, the most common offering was a ram’s shank, placed upright. Elsewhere in the Baikal region, other ways of arranging parts of a ram carcass are observed, apparently because of the absence of the Mongol population and its elite in those areas.