Mongol Invasion Research Articles

THE MILITARY REFORMS AND ACHIEVEMENTS OF ALAUDDIN KHILJI

Alauddin Khilji, the ruler of the Delhi Sultanate in medieval India, faced numerous military challenges during his reign. These challenges included defending against Mongol invasions, suppressing internal rebellions, expanding the boundaries of the Sultanate, and overcoming logistical obstacles. To address these challenges, Khilji implemented significant military reforms, such as establishing a standing army, implementing strict disciplinary measures, introducing the branding system for horses, and constructing strategic forts. These reforms played a crucial role in consolidating his power, expanding the Sultanate's territory, ensuring the effectiveness of the armed forces, and strengthening the stability of the Delhi Sultanate. Khilji's military strategies and decisions, including his aggressive expansionist policy and emphasis on defense, intelligence gathering, and resource utilization, contributed to his military successes and reshaped the socio-political dynamics of the Sultanate.

Улуг битикчи — тюрко-монгольский институт, интегрированный в систему мусульманской администрации чингизидских государств XIII–XIV вв. (по материалам «Дастур ал-катиб»)

Introduction. The article examines a yarliq from the medieval Persian treatise Dastur al-Katib to characterize the institution of ulug bitigchi that used to be widespread in the Mongol Empire and states of Genghis Khan’s descendants. Goals. The study attempts an interdisciplinary analysis of the historical monument — one yarliq appointing an ulug bitigchi (head of scribes) and contained in Dastur al-Katib fi Tayin al-Maratib (A Scribe’s Guide to Determining Ranks) compiled in the mid-14th century by Persian official Muhammad ibn Hindushah Nakhchivani. Materials and methods. The paper focuses on Dastur al-Katib and the mentioned yarliq proper, involves related medieval sources on Mongol Iran and other Chinggisid states, including works by Juvayni, Rashid al-Din, Fasih Khwafi, etc., official documents of the Chinggisid chancelleries. The work employs a series of historical and legal research methods, such as those of source criticism, diplomatics analysis, comparative historical research, formal legal approach, historical legal and comparative legal analyses. Results. The paper introduces the yarliq appointing an ulug bitigchi from the medieval Persian treatise Dastur al-Katib into Russian-language scientific discourse and supplements it with a detailed interdisciplinary analysis. The work clarifies specific features of an ulug bitigchi’s legal status — including his functions, rights, requirements for candidates in Chinggisid chance­lleries — and traces its evolution. It also shows reasons for the survival of the institution in those states even after the official conversion to Islam and shaping of a corresponding government system in accordance with traditions that had existed across the Volga Region, Iran and Central Asia long before the Mongol conquest. Conclusions. The fact that the institution of ulug bitigchi did survive the subsequent Islamization was to primarily position of Ilkhans as heirs of the Mongol Empire where it had first been established as well as to seek a compromised approach in governing their various subjects — nomadic and sedentary peoples, Turko-Mongols and those who spoke Iranian languages, Moslems and adherents of other religions.

The technology, management, and culture of water in ancient Iran from prehistoric times to the Islamic Golden Age

Despite Iran’s longstanding reputation for sustainable water management, the country currently faces mounting water-related challenges caused by population growth, industrial development, urban sprawl, lifestyle changes, climate change, territorial conflicts, poor management, and insufficient public participation. Since past and present water-related challenges share similar origins and patterns, addressing the past is imperative. After gathering, contextualizing, verifying, clustering, coding, and corroborating sources, we conducted a historical study to examine the relationship between water and Iranians from prehistoric times to the Islamic Golden Age (1219 AD). According to the findings, in prehistoric Iran, drought, flooding, river course changes, and the absence of a central government severely impacted water development. Despite doubts about the qanat’s origin, archaeological investigations indicate in the proto-historical period, qanat systems existed in Iran and the Arabian Peninsula. In 550 BC, the Achaemenids initiated a fundamental transformation in Iran’s water history by building dams, qanats, and water canals under a centralized administration. After a slump during the Seleucids (312–63 BC) and the Parthians (247 BC–224 AD), Iranians practiced water governance reborn under the Sassanids (224–651 AD). The Sassanids, like the Achaemenids, formed a powerful statement of unity, cooperation, and support among people for implementing their major water-related plans after enhancing institutions, laws, and communications. Chaotic Iran, however, endured severe water-related weaknesses in the Late Sassanids. Throughout the Islamic Golden Age, Iranians successfully traded water knowledge with other nations. As seen today in Iran, the Iranians have been unable to thrive on their resources since the Mongol invasion due to weak water governance, political tensions, and poor public support. The water sectors face more severe challenges when ancient water systems are ignored, applied without enhancement, or blindly adopted from other nations. Therefore, before current problems worsen, it is essential to integrate traditional and modern water cultures, technology, and management techniques.

Postal organisation (yam) in the Golden Horde

Research objectives: To determine the structure, activities, staff, and fiscal sources of the postal organization in the Golden Horde, and to demonstrate the connections and differences between the centre and other Chingisid khanates. Research materials: The sources used for this research include the yarlıqs and payzas given by the khans of the Golden Horde and the Chingisid Empire, the sources of Chingisname that shed light on the history of the Golden Horde, travellers’ notes, and other relevant sources. Results and novelty of the research: The postal organization of the Golden Horde existed since the time of Chingis Khan’s first conquests, but it reached its full development only with the postal reforms of Ögedei. The Yam, the Mongol postal organization, spread through the lands of the Golden Horde with the Mongol conquests. The administrative hierarchy of the postal organization in the Golden Horde was similar to that of the Chingisid Khanate. There were darughas and basqaqs, chiefs of the tümen, the minngan, and the jaun, and under them, the station masters. Postal couriers, called ula’achin in the state of Chingis Khan, were sometimes called yam and sometimes yamchi in the Golden Horde. Decrees (yarlıqs) from the period after Möngke show that a different postal system operated in the territory of the Golden Horde from the reforms of Ögedei. Under this system, postal couriers still received their supplies from and were housed by the subject, although a station system existed. Postal organizations had to adapt to geographical conditions, and in the Golden Horde postal organization, sledges could be found, which were not present in other Mongolian postal organizations.

An Unbeliever Can Rule Dār al-Islām: Ḥanafī Law in the Wake of the Mongol Invasion

Abstract Prior to the Mongol invasion of Iran in the 7th/13th century, Ḥanafī jurists had adopted two definitions of Islamic lands (dār al-islām): according to a “lenient” definition attributed to Abū Ḥanīfa, an unbelieving ruler may rule over dār al-islām, and according to a “strict” definition attributed to Abū Yūsuf and al-Shaybānī, he may not. As the Mongols overran Central Asia and Iran, later Ḥanafīs began to favor the lenient definition so that lands under non-Muslim occupation might retain the status of dār al-islām as long as Muslims had security and the freedom to worship. In this article, I evaluate the assumptions about Mongol rule that underpin the lenient definition. Persian historians such as Waṣṣāf and Shabānkāraʾī report that the Mongols permitted self-rule, and Muslims were adjudicated in their own courts according to Islamic law. Local histories support the claim that Islamic life can continue under occupation by nonbelievers.

GEOHISTORY AND GEOPOLITICS AROUND THE WAR IN UKRAINE

          The Ukrainian state-historical tradition traces its roots back to the Kyiv state, which was the creature of the ancient Ukrainian tribes and, above all, of the most influential of them - the Polans. The Polans, who adopted the name of Rus in VI-VII centuries, were destined to play an outstanding role in the creation of the state, which developed on the territory of Kyivschyna, Chernigivschyna and Pereyaslavschyna, and in due course expanded its power to almost the whole of Eastern Europe.  By the middle of the XII century the state had entered into a state of feudal fragmentation and was actually split up into a dozen and a half principalities, ruled by different branches of the Rurikovich dynasty. Until the Mongol invasion (1237-1240) Kiev, which lost its influence in favour of the new centres of power, continued to be formally considered the main city of Ukraine.         In 1569 the The Union of Lublin (Polish: Unia lubelska; Lithuanian: Liublino unija) was proclaimed, which united the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the Kingdom of Poland into one state, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Volhynia, Podlasie, Podolia, Bratslav and Kyivschina were under the authority of the new state. After the adoption of the Brest union, which legitimized the union of the Orthodox Church of the Kyiv Metropolitanate and the Catholic Church, many prominent Ukrainians began to move from Orthodoxy to Catholicism. In 1648 Zaporozhye Cossacks led by Bohdan Khmelnitsky rebelled against Polish magnates. Cossacks reached Lvov and occupied Kiev, but in 1651 they were defeated.  It was a turning point in the history of Ukraine and Russia. In 1654 at Pereyaslav Rada the transition to the protectorate of the Moscow Tsar was approved. It all led to a protracted Russo-Polish war, the outcome of which was the Truce of Andrusovo. The parties agreed that the lands on the left bank of the Dnieper River would go to Russia, and the right bank would belong to Poland. But there was no peace on this land for decades.         With the death of Bohdan Khmelnitsky a new round of struggle for a free Ukraine began. The new hetman of Ukraine, Ivan Mazepa, radically changed his foreign policy course.   During the Northern War hetman Mazepa decided to take advantage of the situation and get out from under the control of Peter I. Some of the Cossacks went over to the side of Sweden, but the Russian army won the decisive battle, and Mazepa was forced to flee.  Ukrainian lands at the beginning of the twentieth century were ruled by two empires: Russian and Austro-Hungarian. Current events on the territory of Ukraine are largely determined by its historical role. At different times different Ukrainian territories have been ruled by different states. The Ukrainian people have never been distinguished by nationalism or chauvinism; many nations of the world have lived in Ukraine at different periods of history, and none of them have felt oppressed. The historical tolerance of the Ukrainian people is reflected in both culture and ideology. Simultaneously, the Ukrainian people have constantly struggled for their own statehood. And it seems that this struggle is not over.        The Ukrainian people today have once again felt the perfidy of their neighbouring nation.  The Russian people have in fact abandoned Ukrainian statehood and the so-called DNR and LNR have been proclaimed on the occupied territories.  Nor could the Ukrainian people understand all this, and forgiveness is no longer possible! The pharisaism did not end there, Moscow recognised the so-called DNR and LNR as independent states. It is the consideration of these issues that is the purpose of this paper.

A Manuscript Witness of Cultural Activity in Mongol Baghdad

Abstract This article focuses on MS Leiden Or. 95, which contains a version of the Ḥall mushkilāt al-Ishārāt by Naṣīr al-Dīn al-Ṭūsī (d. 672/1273), copied apparently in 1272 CE. This article explores the paratextual evidence present in the manuscript in order to reconstruct the history of the book and investigate aspects of cultural life in Mongol and post-Mongol Baghdad. It is an attempt, based on manuscript evidence, to contribute to the broader discussion on the impact that the Mongol invasions had on the cultural life of the Middle East in general and the city of Baghdad in particular. The analysis of the colophon, ownership marks, reading certificates, and annotations in this codex offer a particular case study of aspects of production, distribution, and consumption of knowledge in Ilkhanid Baghdad.

Networks and Fame: Literary Social Circles from the Late Song to the Early Yuan

Abstract: This article argues that the late Southern Song was a time of emerging cross-regional “social circles” based on literary interactions. To explicate non-official literati’s vigorous activities and connections outside of local society, the study adopts the concept of “social circle” developed by Charles Kadushin in his study of social networks. After the Mongol conquest, southern literati maintained cross-regional connections that bridged bureaucratic elite and local societies. Participating in literary “social circles” provided literati with new possibilities for achieving fame, exchanging information, making associations, and adapting to political and institutional changes.

Matthew Paris on the Mongol Invasion in Europe by Zsuzsanna Papp Reed (review)

Matthew Paris on the Mongol Invasion in Europe by Zsuzsanna Papp Reed (review)

РАЙОН ЗАРУЧАВ’Я ЯК ЧАСТИНА ПОСАДУ ДАВНЬОРУСЬКОГО НОВГОРОД-СІВЕРСЬКОГО

The article is dedicated to the part of the Novgorod-Siversky post that was located beyond the Zubrytsky stream. The purpose of the work is to determine the above-mentioned territory as a part of the post of the Old Russian city, although to this day there is no consensus on whether the studied territory belongs to the post of the city of Novgorod-Siverskyi. The most popular is its interpretation as a country estate that belonged to a wealthy Novgorodian from the north. The methodological basis of the research is based on the verification of previous versions with the materials of the latest archaeological research. The scientific novelty of the study is that a number of materials are published for the first time and fundamentally change the view on the system of positions in the ancient Russian city of Novgorod-Siverskyi. Excavations and mining of the surrounding area in recent years showed the spread of the ancient Russian cultural layer on an area of about 10 hectares, and reached the same area in his work O. Polyakov. In fact, the territory of Zaruchavya is adjacent to the post from the West. We believe that it was part of it, formed in the 12th century. To date, there is no consensus on whether the studied territory belongs to the city of Novgorod-Siverskyi. The most popular is its interpretation as a country estate that belonged to a wealthy Novgorodian from the north. However, the results of recent studies allow us to look at the problem in a new way. Further excavations and dredging of the surrounding area showed the spread of the ancient Russian cultural layer on an area of about 10 hectares, and O.M. reached the same area in his work. Polyakov. In fact, the territory of Zaruchavya is adjacent to the post from the West. We believe that it was part of it, formed in the 12th century. Also, the cemetery discovered on the territory of Zaruchavye deserves special attention. Conclusions. The betrothal area was a part of the open post of Novgorod-Siverskyi, which was actively exploited in the 11th-13th centuries. It is also likely that the city cemetery was located on its territory. The time of the cemetery's origin requires further research, however, today it can be attributed to the period after the Mongol invasion, since materials dated no later than the 14th century were found in the backfill of the graves. However, further research can significantly adjust the chronology.

Ideology of the World Domination in “The History of the World-Conqueror” by Ata-Melik Juvaini

The subject of this article in the light of the Mongol imperial ideology is the work “History of the World-Conqueror” by the Persian historian and prominent statesman Ata-Melik Juvaini (1226–1283). Juvaini was in the Mongolian service and visited Karakorum, so he was able to capture many facts, as well as legends, reflecting the ideas of Genghis Khan and the Mongolian elite about their “world-building” role assigned to them by their supreme deity – the Eternal Blue Sky. Juvaini outlines some of the rulings of the Great Yasa, from which it becomes obvious that this is not a monument of the customary law of the Mongols, but imperial legislation. He succinctly tells about the life of Genghis Khan and the history of the Mongol Empire formation, and in more detail – about the deeds of his closest descendants: Ogedei, Guyuk, Mongke, Hulagu. Being a courtier, he justifies the military expansion of the Mongols, but ends his narrative on the defeat of the Ismailis and is silent about the fate of the Abbasid caliphate. His reports about the beginning of the conflict between Genghis Khan and Khorezm Shah Muhammad, about the circumstances of the laying out the Mongolian capital, and a number of other reports demonstrating the Mongols’ embodiment of their imperial ideas are extremely interesting. This work, reflecting the views of a representative of a settled civilization, is of interest as one of the first attempts at a systematic presentation of the history of the Mongol conquests, and is also important as a source of information for Abu’l Faraj (1226–1286) [Borbone, 2016] and Rashid al-Din (1247–1318), and the latter has get a detailed description for many points only outlined by Juvaini. Juvaini's work inspired Wassaf (1265–1329) to write its sequel. The author also influenced other historians: Ibn Bibi (?–1272) in Anatolia, Qadi Baidawi (?–1316?) in Fars.

Рязанские владения в верховьях Дона «въ верхъ Дону Дубокъ» и Донской путь XIV–XV вв.

The article is devoted to the insufficiently studied issue of the significance and place of the river route along the Don River in the political and economic history of Rus’ in the 14th — 16th centuries. After the 1237–1240 Mongol invasion the traditional river route that connected the lands of Rus’ with the Black Sea region and Byzantium along the Dnieper River fell into decay and was replaced by the Don route. At the mouth of the Don, the Venetian Tana, one of the largest centers of international trade in Eastern Europe, functioned. Navigation along the Don began in the southern lands bordering the steppe of the Grand Duchy of Ryazan. Written sources have preserved the description of two routes through the lands of Ryazan to the Don, one of them is almost entirely riverine, through the upper reaches of the right tributaries of the Oka River to the upper reaches of the left tributary of the Don, the Voronezh River. It is described in the documents of Russia’s foreign relations with Turkey at the beginning of the 16th century. The second route involved overcoming the 140-kilometer distance from the Oka to the upper reaches of the Don by land, and Metropolitan Pimen used it to travel to Constantinople in 1389 A numerous church delegation and an armed detachment were accompanied by heavy ships put on wheels, lowered into the Don at the confluence of the Mokraya Tabola River. At the mouth of the latter there are two large complexes of settlements of the 13th — 14th centuries, which belonged to the Ryazan principality. Apparently, this is the city «to the top of the Don Dubok» belonging to Ryazan, a transshipment point for trade along the Don, known from written sources.

Before the Storm: A Transrealm History of the Decades Leading Up to the First Mongol Invasion of Japan

Abstract: The Mongol invasions of Japan (1274 and 1281) are among the most widely studied events in thirteenth-century East Asian maritime history. Less attention, however, has been paid to the lengthy negotiations that took place prior to the first invasion and involved Khubilai Khan (1215–1294), his Chinese advisers, the Koryŏ king, the Kamakura shogunate, and the Japanese imperial court. Based on primary sources from the Mongols, Koreans, and Japanese, this article demonstrates that merely focusing on the invasions themselves is insufficient to describe their complexity. Moreover, the diverse strategies that different regimes utilized in dealing with the Mongol Empire demonstrate new possibilities for interpreting the medieval maritime world in ways that go beyond the conventional historical narrative, which treats Mongolian expansion as the overarching framework. Adopting a transrealm and maritime perspective that enables the integration of Japanese history within a broader geographic context, this article investigates the actions and reactions of different parties to the negotiations. It thus attempts to move beyond the conceptual limitations we run up against when we apply contemporary boundaries and identities associated with modern nation-states in studying this important episode in East Asian and world history.

Башкирская рукопись «Усерган таварихы»

Introduction. Bashkortostan is one of Russia’s major center of Arabic-script publications and manuscripts. The latter include quite a number of handwritten documents that contain valuable material on the history of the region. The article examines one of such texts — an understudied historical document titled ‘Usergan Tavarikhy’. Goals. The work aims to provide a brief review of the manuscript’s content and focuses on data directly related to Bashkir history. Materials. The paper analyzes one anonymous Arabic-script Turki-language manuscript of Usergan Tavarikhy stored at Ufa Federal Research Centre (Scientific Library, Rare Book Section). Results. The anonymous source proves quite rich in material describing most important periods in the history of the region. The author tends to focus on external factors that had had their impacts on Bashkir history, such as the spread of Islam, Mongol invasion and embassy to Genghis Khan, relations with Nogais under the rule of the Nogai Horde, and the beginnings of Russia’s period. The document begins with legends about saints and prophets. A significant part of the manuscript deals with genealogies of the Golden Horde rulers introduced in the form of diagrams and supplemented with comments. Conclusions. The Usergan Tavarikhy manuscript is certainly a valuable historical source that examines not only the past of Bashkirs but rather covers far more extensive geographic areas. And despite the document is widely known as ‘tawarikh’, its content makes it closer to the historical and functional genre of tarikhname.

Tatars of the Jochid Ulus: the formation and development of an ethnopolitical identity in the 13th–15th centuries

Research objectives: To analyze the processes behind the formation and development of the Tatar ethnopolitical community in the Ulus of Jochi in the XIII–XV centuries. Research materials: The author of the article examines a variety of sources that reflect the progressive development of the Tatar ethnopolitical community in the Ulus of Jochi during the XIII–XV centuries. Results and novelty of the research: The Tatars of the Jochid Ulus during the XIII–XV centuries were usually studied from a socio-political point of view, with little attention being paid to the study of mental structures. Nevertheless, the formation of the ethnopolitical community of the Tatars – something which determines the mental universe of the population of the Ulus of Jochi – deserves and receives here more intensive study. The Mongol invasion brought not only destruction to the countries of Eurasia, but also led to the formation of a new Mongol Empire, and at the end of the XIII century, the successor Chingisid states. In all these khanates, there was a process of formation of their statehood and ethnopolitical consolidation. In the Ulus of Jochi, this process was associated with the formation of the Tatar ethnopolitical community. It turns out that during the conquests of Chingis Khan and his heirs in different countries of Eurasia from the Near and Middle East to Central Asia and Eastern Europe, Tatars were present among the troops of the Khans, playing the role of a military aristocracy. Due to these objective and other subjective reasons, the Tatar identity became the leading one in the Jochid Ulus, manifesting itself in the ideas that the Jochid Ulus was a country of the Tatars, the term itself becoming synonymous with the military service aristocracy. Tatars were also understood as Turkic nomadic people with their own clan structure.

A MYTH ABOUT THE EMERGENCE OF THE QARAMANID DYNASTY AS REFLECTED IN THE OTTOMAN SOURCES

The issue of when and how the Qaramanid dynasty or tribe that founded the Qaramanid state came to Anatolia is still an unsolved historical problem. The view put forward by famous Turkologist the late Fuat Köprülü (1890-1966) in 1922 remains largely valid. This issue will remain unresolved unless a new source work is released. The general view was that the Qaramanid tribe, belonging to the Afshar branch of the Oghuzs who escaped from the Mongol invasion, came to the Shirvan or Arran region of Azerbaijan. From here they came to Ermenak by way of Sivas. It was claimed that the Babai uprising of Sivas had an impact on the establishment of the Qaramanid State. In the middle of the thirteenth century, the Qaraman tribe began to act independently in Ermenak, which was situated in the Seljuk-Armenian border (uc), under the leadership of Qaraman Bey. Their relations with the Mongols, Armenians and Seljuk sultans were not regular. They have dealt with plunder in the region. When Qaraman Bey captured the fortress of Ermenak from the Armenians, he turned this place into a political center. Later he captured the town of Laranda. 
 Seljuk, Arab and Armenian historical sources related to this subject have been extensively studied by scholars. Whether the information given by the Mamluk historians about the Qaramanids is reliable or not is an issue that needs to be addressed separately. Ottoman chroniclers such as Mustafa Ali, Ruhi, Müneccimbaşı, Kâtip Çelebi, Hayrullah Efendi, Hezarfen Hüseyin Efendi, Cenabi, Rustem Pasha and Müneccimbaşı also contemplated the emergence of the Qaramanid dynasty. However, these sources are problematic in terms of historical methodology, since they are of late date. As a matter of fact, Fuat Köprülü did not take these sources into account. Most likely, these are just a compilation. The information in the Şikari History, the official history of the Qaramanids, and the information given by Ottoman chroniclers do not match with each other. In this article, we are at least publishing these texts about the Qaramanids. The problem unfortunately remains unresolved.

MONGOLIAN MILITARY TERMINOLOGY IN ARABIC LETTER MULTILINGUAL DICTIONARIES

As a result of the Mongol conquest movement that began in the 13th century, Mongolian was considered to be one of the “must-learn” languages of the time. As a result, Mongolian appeared in dictionaries from the period such as Mukaddimetü’l-Edeb, Kitâb Hilyetü’l-insân ve Helbetü’l-lisân (İbni Mühennâ ügati), Rasulid Hexaglot, Şâmilü’l-Luga ve Kitâb-ı Mecmû-ı Tercümân-ı Türkî ve Acemî ve Mugalî. This article identifies the military terminology included in the dictionaries in question’s Mongolian vocabulary and compares it to its Turkish equivalents to highlight similarities and contrasts between Western Central Mongolian and Turkish military terminology. In Mongolian dictionaries with Arabic letters, Mongolian war equipment names are mentioned as follows: bulau “mace, flail”, dūlγan “helmet”, hesi “sword pommel”, ildü “sword”, jida “bayonet”, kituγa “knife”, kögürge “drum”, moγodaq “blind sword; blind knife”, qalqan “shield”, qudqa “knife”, qui “scabbard”, ququ “knife”, quyaq “armor”, tuγ “tug, banner”. The words related to bows and archery, which are among the most significant war tools and equipment of the steppe peoples, are given in great detail in Mongolian dictionaries with Arabic letters. The words related to bows and archery, which are among the most significant war tools and equipment of the steppe peoples, are given in great detail in Mongolian dictionaries with Arabic letters. These words include: aqsau qurman “quiver belt”, bariūl “bow cover”, demiren “arrowhead”, erekebči “thumb ring”, kerčėsün “groove, notch”, kiriš “bowstring”, köbči “bowstring”, numun “bow”, ödün “empennage”, qodali “bone-tipped arrow”, qor “quiver”, qorumsaqa “quiver”, quldasun “bow dust”, sumun “arrow”. Among the words related to bow and archery, the words demiren “arrowhead” and kiriš “bowstring” are noteworthy in Turkish. Of these words, kiriš “bowsrting” is given together with the Mongolian synonym köbči “bowstring”. As a result, it is possible to say that Mongolian, which was particularly influential in the Mamluk-Ilkhanid areas, both affectedTurkish and was influenced by Turkish in the 13th-14th centuries, particularly in terms of military terminology.

Ишкуловский II курганный могильник – памятник монгольских кочевников XIII–XIV вв. на Южном Урале

Introduction. The Mongol conquest of the Eastern European steppes implies the presence of the conquerors themselves in the occupied territories which should be reflected in the archaeological monuments. The Ishkulovsky II burial mound is one of these monuments consisting of stone kurgans with a diameter of 3–5 m and a height of 0.15–0.2 m left by the nomads of the Golden Horde time from the territory of the Ulus of Jochi. The purpose of the article is to publish the materials of the necropolis and the authors’ attempt to identify the burials of the Mongols themselves for whom one of the main signs of funeral rites, among others, was the northern body orientation of the buried individuals. In the context of the article, the fact of Islamization of the Mongols under the influence of the Kipchaks is of considerable importance, which was reflected in the material of Kurgan 5, as well as in the burial mounds 6, 7, 8, 10, 11, 12 where funeral things were not found. These burials can be considered Muslim with high certainty, if body orientation of the buried individuals is a western or north-western. Methods. The article uses the method of analogies and cross-dating to study the funeral rite and the material culture. The source of the study is 13 burials studied during the excavations of the 12 stone burial mounds of the Ishkulovsky II burial mound. Discussion and results. According to the funeral rite and clothing inventory, the burial mound was left by a mixed population of nomads, some of whom are associated with the Kipchaks, the other finds analogies among the burials of the Mongols. Thus, the dating of the necropolis fits into a narrow chronological period from the end of the 13th to the 14th century. A kind of confessional dualism can be observed in the rite in which both paganism and Islam were equally “legitimate” even within separate tribal divisions.

The Competition for Cumania between Hungary and Bulgaria (1211–1247)

Because the alliance between the Cumans and Bulgaria was a danger both for Hungary and the Latin Empire, it was preferable for Hungary to extend its domination over Cumania. The Teutonic knights were settled in south-eastern Transylvania in 1211 to defend it against the Cumans, who, after 1214, became enemies also for Bulgaria. Besides the few fortresses built in the Bârsa land, there is no certain proof for an expansion of the Teutonic Order outside the Carpathians, and by consecquence of the Hungarian kingdom, in the period before the Mongol invasion of 1241. After the departure of the Teutonic knights in 1225, Cumania became the target of the Dominican mission which was present since around 1221 in Terra Severin, a north-Danubian Bulgarian possession. The Cuman bishopric was established in 1227. The subjection of these Cumans made useless the preservation of the Hungarian-Bulgarian alliance closed in 1214, and the consequence was the annexation of Terra Severin by Hungary, sometimes between 1228 and 1232, as a Banat. The final act of the Hungarian expansion in Cumania was the introduction of the title of King of Cumania by Bela IV in 1236. The region where it was established the bishopric of Cumania continued to be under the influence of the Church of Tărnovo, even after the end of the domination of the Bulgarian state in this north-Danubian territory. In 1241, the Cuman bishopric was destroyed by the Mongol invasion. Because the Golden Horde domination did not extend west of Olt in the first years after 1242, Bela IV tried to regain positions by summoning the Hospitaller Knights in 1247. Terra Severin remained a part of the Hungarian kingdom, but the function of Ban was abandoned or suspended. One mission of the Hospitallers was to extend the Hungarian domination in Cumania, in the regions which were then conquered by the Mongols. The Mongol domination prevented the emergence of a Cuman kingdom in Moldavia, vassal of Hungary. Only the decline of the Golden Horde made possible a new penetration of the Hungarian kingdom in the former Cumania, in 1345. The former Cumania entered in the new states created during the 14th century by the Romanians liberated from the Hungarian domination, Wallachia and Moldavia.

The Song Resistance Movement, 1276–1279: An Episode in Chinese Regional History

Abstract The final years of the Mongol conquest of Song China, 1276 to 1279, were intensely eventful and fateful. In this short span of time the Song lost three emperors and all of its territory, and the largest land-based empire the world has ever known reached its fullest extent in the wake of a massive battle on the seas off the coast of Guangdong in March 1279. The fighting during these years was largely riparian and littoral, with Song and Mongol (Yuan) warships engaging in intense clashes and suffering horrendous casualties. The Song resistance movement that developed after the withdrawal of the Song royal family in 1276 was valiant and dogged in its struggle against the Mongol juggernaut but ultimately ineffectual because it was waged against spectacularly superior tactics. In southern China, particularly Fujian, Guangdong, and Guangxi, the Song resistance helped Sinicize the once-largely unassimilated and isolated southeast, and many families to this day in the region point with pride to their valiant forebears. Sun Yat-sen was himself a successor to the Song resistance movement.