Molecular Cloud Complex Research Articles

B- AND A-TYPE STARS IN THE TAURUS-AURIGA STAR-FORMING REGION

We describe the results of a search for early-type stars associated with the Taurus-Auriga molecular cloud complex, a diffuse nearby star-forming region noted as lacking young stars of intermediate and high mass. We investigate several sets of possible O, B and early A spectral class members. The first is a group of stars for which mid-infrared images show bright nebulae, all of which can be associated with stars of spectral type B. The second group consists of early-type stars compiled from (i) literature listings in SIMBAD; (ii) B stars with infrared excesses selected from the Spitzer Space Telescope survey of the Taurus cloud; (iii) magnitude- and color-selected point sources from the 2MASS; and (iv) spectroscopically identified early-type stars from the SDSS coverage of the Taurus region. We evaluated stars for membership in the Taurus-Auriga star formation region based on criteria involving: spectroscopic and parallactic distances, proper motions and radial velocities, and infrared excesses or line emission indicative of stellar youth. For selected objects, we also model the scattered and emitted radiation from reflection nebulosity and compare the results with the observed spectral energy distributions to further test the plausibility of physical association of the B stars with the Taurus cloud. This investigation newly identifies as probable Taurus members three B-type stars: HR 1445 (HD 28929), tau Tau (HD 29763), 72 Tau (HD 28149), and two A-type stars: HD 31305 and HD 26212, thus doubling the number of stars A5 or earlier associated with the Taurus clouds. Several additional early-type sources including HD 29659 and HD 283815 meet some, but not all, of the membership criteria and therefore are plausible, though not secure, members.

THE GALACTIC CENTER CLOUD G0.253+0.016: A MASSIVE DENSE CLOUD WITH LOW STAR FORMATION POTENTIAL

We present the first interferometric molecular line and dust emission maps for the Galactic Center (GC) cloud G0.253+0.016, observed using the Combined Array for Research in Millimeter--wave Astronomy (CARMA) and the Submillimeter Array (SMA). This cloud is very dense, and concentrates a mass exceeding the Orion Molecular Cloud Complex (2x10^5 M_sun) into a radius of only 3pc, but it is essentially starless. G0.253+0.016 therefore violates "star formation laws" presently used to explain trends in galactic and extragalactic star formation by a factor ~45. Our observations show a lack of dense cores of significant mass and density, thus explaining the low star formation activity. Instead, cores with low densities and line widths 1km/s---probably the narrowest lines reported for the GC region to date---are found. Evolution over several 10^5 yr is needed before more massive cores, and possibly an Arches--like stellar cluster, could form. Given the disruptive dynamics of the GC region, and the potentially unbound nature of G0.253+0.016, it is not clear that this evolution will happen.

NEAR-INFRARED POLARIMETRY OF A NORMAL SPIRAL GALAXY VIEWED THROUGH THE TAURUS MOLECULAR CLOUD COMPLEX

Few normal galaxies have been probed using near-infrared polarimetry, even though it reveals magnetic fields in the cool interstellar medium better than either optical or radio polarimetry. Deep H-band (1.6um) linear imaging polarimetry toward Taurus serendipitously included the galaxy 2MASX J04412715+2433110 with adequate sensitivity and resolution to map polarization across nearly its full extent. The observations revealed the galaxy to be a steeply inclined (~75 deg) disk type with a diameter, encompassing 90% of the Petrosian flux, of 4.2 kpc at a distance of 53 Mpc. Because the sight line passes through the Taurus Molecular Cloud complex, the foreground polarization needed to be measured and removed. The foreground extinction Av of 2.00+/-0.10 mag and reddening E(H-K) of 0.125 +/- 0.009 mag were also assessed and removed, based on analysis of 2MASS, UKIDSS, Spitzer, and WISE photometry using the NICE, NICER, and RJCE methods. Corrected for the polarized foreground, the galaxy polarization values range from zero to 3%. The polarizations are dominated by a disk-parallel magnetic field geometry, especially to the northeast, while either a vertical field or single scattering of bulge light produces disk-normal polarizations to the southwest. The multi-kpc coherence of the magnetic field revealed by the infrared polarimetry is in close agreement with short wavelength radio synchrotron observations of edge-on galaxies, indicating that both cool and warm interstellar media of disk galaxies may be threaded by common magnetic fields.

Large scale IRAM 30 m CO-observations in the giant molecular cloud complex W43

Large scale IRAM 30 m CO-observations in the giant molecular cloud complex W43

Evidence for grain growth in molecular clouds: A Bayesian examination of the extinction law in Perseus

We investigate the shape of the extinction law in two 1-degree square fields of the Perseus Molecular Cloud complex. We combine deep red-optical (r, i, and z-band) observations obtained using Megacam on the MMT with UKIDSS near-infrared (J, H, and K-band) data to measure the colours of background stars. We develop a new hierarchical Bayesian statistical model, including measurement error, intrinsic colour variation, spectral type, and dust reddening, to simultaneously infer parameters for individual stars and characteristics of the population. We implement an efficient MCMC algorithm utilising generalised Gibbs sampling to compute coherent probabilistic inferences. We find a strong correlation between the extinction (Av) and the slope of the extinction law (parameterized by Rv). Because the majority of the extinction toward our stars comes from the Perseus molecular cloud, we interpret this correlation as evidence of grain growth at moderate optical depths. The extinction law changes from the diffuse value of Rv = 3 to the dense cloud value of Rv = 5 as the column density rises from Av = 2 mags to Av = 10 mags. This relationship is similar for the two regions in our study, despite their different physical conditions, suggesting that dust grain growth is a fairly universal process.

DEEP IMAGING SURVEYS OF STAR-FORMING CLOUDS. V. NEW HERBIG-HARO SHOCKS AND GIANT OUTFLOWS IN TAURUS

We report the discovery of new Herbig-Haro shocks in the southeastern portion of the Taurus molecular cloud complex. The embedded protostar IRAS04325+2402, located in the eastern end of the B18 dark cloud in the cloud region known as L1535, drives a parsec-scale outflow with a length of at least 134' (5.5?pc) toward P.A. = 17?/197?? making this the largest protostellar outflow found thus far in Taurus. The southern terminus of this flow located about 65' (~2.7?pc) from the IRAS source consists of a large previously discovered shock, HH 434-436. The northern lobe contains three faint shocks with the most distant being HH 696 located 2.8?pc north of the source. Two smaller shocks, HH 699 and HH 703, are found midway between the IRAS source and HH 434-436. HH 703 has a proper motion of 170 ? 30?km s?1 toward P.A. = 195? ? 10?. Additionally, we report the discovery of a dozen new Herbig-Haro objects tracing outflows and protostellar jets in B18 and near IC 2087, at least two of which have also attained parsec-scale dimensions. These observations demonstrate that some low-mass stars forming from the Taurus clouds drive giant flows which can excite shocks in the inter-cloud medium degrees from their sources, providing further evidence for the generation of large-scale mass motions and turbulence by protostellar outflows.

CH radio emission from Heiles Cloud 2 as a tracer of molecular cloud evolution

A mapping observation of the $J=1/2$ $\Lambda$-type doubling transition (3.3 GHz) of CH has been conducted toward Heiles Cloud 2 (HCL2) in the Taurus molecular cloud complex to reveal its molecular cloud-scale distribution. The observations were carried out with the Effelsberg 100 m telescope. The CH emission is found to be extended over the whole region of HCL2. It is brighter in the southeastern part, which encloses the TMC-1 cyanopolyyne peak than in the northwestern part. Its distribution extends continuously from the peak of the neutral carbon emission (CI peak) to the TMC-1 ridge, as if it were connecting the distributions of the [C I] and C$^{18}$O emissions. Since CH is an intermediate in gas-phase chemical reactions from C to CO, its emission should trace the transition region. The above distribution of the CH emission is consistent with this chemical behavior. Since the CH abundance is subject to the chemical evolutionary effect, the CH column density in HCL2 no longer follows a linear correlation wit the H$_2$ column density reported for diffuse and translucent clouds. More importantly, the CH line profile is found to be composed of the narrow and broad components. Although the broad component is dominant around the CI peak, the narrow component appears in the TMC-1 ridge and dense core regions such as L1527 and TMC-1A. This trend seems to reflect a narrowing of the line width during the formation of dense cores. These results suggest that the 3.3 GHz CH line is a useful tool for tracing the chemical and physical evolution of molecular clouds.

Molecular line contamination in the SCUBA-2 450 and 850 μm continuum data

Observations of the dust emission using millimetre/submillimetre bolometer arrays can be contaminated by molecular line flux, such as flux from 12CO. As the brightest molecular line in the submillimetre, it is important to quantify the contribution of CO flux to the dust continuum bands. Conversion factors were used to convert molecular line integrated intensities to flux detected by bolometer arrays in mJy per beam. These factors were calculated for 12CO line integrated intensities to the SCUBA-2 850 {\mu}m and 450 {\mu}m bands. The conversion factors were then applied to HARP 12CO 3-2 maps of NGC 1333 in the Perseus complex and NGC 2071 and NGC 2024 in the Orion B molecular cloud complex to quantify the respective 12CO flux contribution to the 850 {\mu}m dust continuum emission. Sources with high molecular line contamination were analysed in further detail for molecular outflows and heating by nearby stars to determine the cause of the 12CO contribution. The majority of sources had a 12CO 3-2 flux contribution under 20 per cent. However, in regions of molecular outflows, the 12CO can dominate the source dust continuum (up to 79 per cent contamination) with 12CO fluxes reaching \sim 68 mJy per beam.

Molecular outflows identified in the FCRAO CO survey of the Taurus Molecular Cloud

Jets and outflows are an integral part of the star formation process. While there are many detailed studies of molecular outflows towards individual star-forming sites, few studies have surveyed an entire star-forming molecular cloud for this phenomenon. The 100-deg2 Five College Radio Astronomy Observatory CO survey of the Taurus Molecular Cloud provides an excellent opportunity to undertake an unbiased survey of a large, nearby, molecular cloud complex for molecular outflow activity. Our study provides information on the extent, energetics and frequency of outflows in this region, which are then used to assess the impact of outflows on the parent molecular cloud. The search identified 20 outflows in the Taurus region, eight of which were previously unknown. Both 12CO and 13CO data cubes from the Taurus molecular map were used, and dynamical properties of the outflows are derived. Even for previously known outflows, our large-scale maps indicate that many of the outflows are much larger than previously suspected, with eight of the outflows (40 per cent) being more than a parsec long. The mass, momentum and kinetic energy from the 20 outflows are compared to the repository of turbulent energy in Taurus. Comparing the energy deposition rate from outflows to the dissipation rate of turbulence, we conclude that outflows by themselves cannot sustain the observed turbulence seen in the entire cloud. However, when the impact of outflows is studied in selected regions of Taurus, it is seen that locally outflows can provide a significant source of turbulence and feedback. The L1551 dark cloud which is just south of the main Taurus complex was not covered by this survey, but the outflows in L1551 have much higher energies compared to the outflows in the main Taurus cloud. In the L1551 cloud, outflows can not only account for the turbulent energy present, but are probably also disrupting their parent cloud. We conclude that for a molecular cloud like Taurus, an L1551-like episode occurring once every 105 years is sufficient to sustain the turbulence observed. Five of the eight newly discovered outflows have no known associated stellar source, indicating that they may be embedded Class 0 sources. In Taurus, 30 per cent of Class I sources and 12 per cent of flat-spectrum sources from the Spitzer young stellar object (YSO) catalogue have outflows, while 75 per cent of known Class 0 objects have outflows. Overall, the paucity of outflows in Taurus compared to the embedded population of Class I and flat-spectrum YSOs indicates that molecular outflows are a short-lived stage marking the youngest phase of protostellar life. The current generation of outflows in Taurus highlight an ongoing period of active star formation, while a large fraction of YSOs in Taurus have evolved well past the Class I stage.

SIMULATION STUDY OF DUST-SCATTERED FAR-ULTRAVIOLET EMISSION IN THE ORION-ERIDANUS SUPERBUBBLE

We present the results of dust scattering simulations carried out for the Orion Eridanus Superbubble region by comparing them with observations made in the far-ultraviolet. The albedo and the phase function asymmetry factor (g-factor) of interstellar grains were estimated, as were the distance and thickness of the dust layers. The results are as follows: 0.43$^{+0.02}_{-0.04}$ for the albedo and 0.45$^{+0.2}_{-0.2}$ for the g-factor, in good agreement with previous determinations and theoretical predictions. The distance of the assumed single dust layer, modeled for the Orion Molecular Cloud Complex, was estimated to be ~110 pc and the thickness ranged from ~130 at the core to ~50 pc at the boundary for the region of the present interest, implying that the dust cloud is located in front of the superbubble. The simulation result also indicates that a thin (~10 pc) dust shell surrounds the inner X-ray cavities of hot gas at a distance of ~70-90 pc.

FERMILARGE AREA TELESCOPE STUDY OF COSMIC RAYS AND THE INTERSTELLAR MEDIUM IN NEARBY MOLECULAR CLOUDS

We report an analysis of the interstellar gamma-ray emission from the Chamaeleon, R Coronae Australis (R CrA), and Cepheus and Polaris flare regions with the Fermi Large Area Telescope. They are among the nearest molecular cloud complexes, within ~300 pc from the solar system. The gamma-ray emission produced by interactions of cosmic-rays (CRs) and interstellar gas in those molecular clouds is useful to study the CR densities and distributions of molecular gas close to the solar system. The obtained gamma-ray emissivities above 250 MeV are (5.9 +/- 0.1(stat) (+0.9/-1.0)(sys)), (10.2 +/- 0.4(stat) (+1.2/-1.7)(sys)), and (9.1 +/- 0.3(stat) (+1.5/-0.6)(sys)) x10^(-27) photons s^(-1) sr^(-1) H-atom^(-1) for the Chamaeleon, R CrA, and Cepheus and Polaris flare regions, respectively. Whereas the energy dependences of the emissivities agree well with that predicted from direct CR observations at the Earth, the measured emissivities from 250 MeV to 10 GeV indicate a variation of the CR density by ~20% in the neighborhood of the solar system, even if we consider systematic uncertainties. The molecular mass calibrating ratio, Xco = N(H2)/Wco, is found to be (0.96 +/- 0.06(stat) (+0.15/-0.12)(sys)), (0.99 +/- 0.08(stat) (+0.18/-0.10)(sys)), and (0.63 +/- 0.02(stat) (+0.09/-0.07)(sys)) x10^20 H2-molecule cm^(-2) (K km s^(-1))^(-1) for the Chamaeleon, R CrA, and Cepheus and Polaris flare regions, respectively, suggesting a variation of Xco in the vicinity of the solar system. From the obtained values of Xco, the masses of molecular gas traced by Wco in the Chamaeleon, R CrA, and Cepheus and Polaris flare regions are estimated to be ~5x10^3, ~10^3, and ~3.3x10^4 Msolar, respectively. A comparable amount of gas not traced well by standard HI and CO surveys is found in the regions investigated.

Linking the Formation of Molecular Clouds and High-Mass Stars: A Multitracer and Multiscale Study11The full thesis can be downloaded here: http://tel.archives-ouvertes.fr/tel-00690131.

Star formation is a complex process involving many physical processes acting from the very large scales of the galaxy to the very small scales of individual stars. Among the highly debated topics, the gas to star-formation-rate (SFR) relation is an interesting topic for both the galactic and extragalactic communities. Although it is studied extensively for external galaxies, how this relation behaves with respect to the molecular clouds of the Milky Way is still unclear. The detailed mechanisms of the formation of molecular clouds and stars, especially high-mass stars, are still not clear. To tackle these two questions, we investigate the molecular cloud formation and the star formation activities in the W43 molecular cloud complex and the $\rm G035.39-00.33$ filament. The first goal is to infer the connections of the gas-SFR relations of these two objects to those of other galactic molecular clouds and to extragalactic ones. The second goal is to look for indications that the converging flows theory has formed the W43 molecular cloud since it is the first theory to explain star formation self-consistently, from the onset of molecular clouds to the formation of seeds of (high-mass) stars. We use a large dataset of continuum tracers at 3.6--870~\micron extracted from Galaxy-wide surveys such as \gls{hobys}, EPOS, \gls{higal}, \gls{atlasgal}, \gls{glimpse}, and \gls{mipsgal} to trace the cloud structure, mass and star formation activities of both the W43 molecular cloud complex and the $\rm G035.39-00.33$ filament. To explore the detailed formation mechanisms of the molecular cloud in W43 from low-density to very high-density gas, we take advantage of the existing \hi, $^{13}$CO~1--0 molecular line data from the \gls{vgps} and \gls{grs} surveys in combination with the new dedicated molecular line surveys with the \gls{30m}. We characterise the W43 molecular complex as being a massive complex ($M_{\mbox{\tiny total}}\sim 7.1 \times 10^6~\msun$ over spatial extent of $\sim 140$~pc), which has a high concentration of dense clumps ($M_{\mbox{\tiny clumps}}\sim 8.4\times 10^5~\msun, 12\%)$. It spans over a large breadth of velocity $\sim$22~\kms. This study also shows that it lies at a distance of $\sim 6$~kpc from the Sun, which is the meeting point of the Scutum-Centaurus Galactic arm and the bar. W43 harbours some of the densest cores in the Galactic Plane (W43--MM1, W43--MM2 with $\nhtwo\sim8\times 10^8$ and $4\times 10^8$\cmc), is undergoing a mini-starburst event (\emph{SFR}$\, \sim 0.01~\msun\, \mbox{yr}^{-1}$ $\sim 10^6$~yr ago to $0.1~\msun\, \mbox{yr}^{-1}$ in the near future) and has extended SiO emission.The large scale \hi gas displays an atomic gas envelope with diameter $\sim 290$~pc surrounding W43, which may be the remnant of the atomic gas clouds that formed the molecular cloud. We show that the IRDC $\rm G035.39-00.33$ filament is a cold ($13-16$~K) and dense ($\nhtwo$ up to $9\times 10^{22}~\cmd$) filament, which qualifies it as a ''ridge''. This ridge harbours a total of 28 dense cores (\textit{FWHM}$\sim$0.15~pc), among which are 13 MDCs with masses of 20--50~$\msun$ and densities of 2--20 $\times 10^{5}~\cmc$. They are potential sites of forming immediate to high-mass stars. Given their concentration in the IRDC $\rm G035.39-00.33$ they may be participating in a mini-burst of star formation activity with \textit{SFE}$\sim$ $15\%$, \textit{SFR}$\sim300~\msun\,$Myr$^{-1}$, and $\Sigma_{SFR}\sim 40~\msun\,$yr$^{-1}\,$kpc$^{-2}$. Both W43 and $\rm G035.39-00.33$ house extended SiO emission spreading over a few parsecs, which has no associated star formation activity. We propose that these regions originate from low-velocity shocks within converging flows. In W43, the evidence is even stronger with the extended SiO emission lying at the centre of the global collapses as shown by HCO$^{+}$ isotopologues. Using {\it herschel} data, we show that both W43 molecular complex and the IRDC $\rm G035.39-00.33$ filament seem to be forming stars, especially high-mass stars, very efficiently. Especially, W43 which is found to be one of the most extreme molecular complexes of the Milky Way in term of size and mass. We propose to divide the gas density-SFR diagram into two regimes: galactic mini-starbursts and normal star-forming molecular clouds, following the division made between mini-starburst normal spiral galaxies in the extragalactic context. With respect to SiO extended emission, both regions exhibit signatures of converging flows, thus they provide the perfect laboratory for testing this scenario.

NH$_{3}$ Survey Observation of Massive Star-Forming Region W 43

Abstract We consider the properties of giant molecular cloud complexes in the star-forming region W 43 with a resolution of several pc scale, and discuss their relations to the evolutionary stages of massive star formation. We performed a NH$_{3}$ ($J$, $K$) $=$ (1, 1), (2, 2), and (3, 3) inversion-line survey with the Hokkaido University 11-m telescope. Among 51 observed positions, selected based on integrated intensity maps of $^{13}$CO ($J$$=$ 1–0), these three emissions were detected from 21, 8, and 5 positions, respectively. The integrated intensity of the NH$_{3}$ ($J$, $K$) $=$ (1, 1) line was found to be proportional to the far-infrared luminosity, estimated from IRAS data. The rotation temperatures were deduced to be $\sim\ $15–20 K at eight observed positions. In addition, the upper limits were estimated for 13 positions, which include the relatively low temperatures below 14 K at two positions with a relatively high fractions of NH$_{3}$ for $^{13}$CO and with a low far-infrared luminosity. We derived the ortho-to-para abundance ratio of NH$_{3}$. From the population distribution between the ortho- and para-levels of NH$_{3}$, we also derived temperatures of $\sim\ $6–12 K, which may be interpreted as the temperatures when NH$_{3}$ molecules were formed. We discuss the relevance of the present results of our observations to the massive star-formation process and the current status of the W 43 region while taking into account previous observations of other indicators of massive star formation. It is shown that the complexes contain several regions in different evolutionary stages, or with the distinct characteristics of star formation within a timescales shorter than the lifetime of massive stars.

FERMI LARGE AREA TELESCOPE DISCOVERY OF GeV GAMMA-RAY EMISSION FROM THE VICINITY OF SNR W44

We report the detection of GeV gamma-ray emission from the molecular cloud complex that surrounds the supernova remnant (SNR) W44 using the Large Area Telescope (LAT) onboard Fermi. While the previously reported gamma-ray emission from SNR W44 is likely to arise from the dense radio-emitting filaments within the remnant, the gamma-ray emission that appears to come from the surrounding molecular cloud complex can be ascribed to the cosmic rays (CRs) that have escaped from W44. The non-detection of synchrotron radio emission associated with the molecular cloud complex suggests the decay of neutral pi mesons produced in hadronic collisions as the gamma-ray emission mechanism. The total kinetic energy channeled into the escaping CRs is estimated to be (0.3--3)x10^{50} erg, in broad agreement with the conjecture that SNRs are the main sources of Galactic CRs.

YSO jets in the Galactic plane from UWISH2 - I. MHO catalogue for Serpens and Aquila

Jets and outflows from Young Stellar Objects (YSOs) are important signposts of currently ongoing star formation. In order to study these objects we are conducting an unbiased survey along the Galactic Plane in the 1-0S(1) emission line of molecular hydrogen at 2.122mu using the UK Infrared Telescope. In this paper we are focusing on a 33 square degree sized region in Serpens and Aquila (18deg < l < 30deg; -1.5deg < b < +1.5deg). We trace 131 jets and outflows from YSOs, which results in a 15 fold increase in the total number of known Molecular Hydrogen Outflows. Compared to this, the total integrated 1-0S(1) flux of all objects just about doubles, since the known objects occupy the bright end of the flux distribution. Our completeness limit is 3*10^-18Wm^-2 with 70% of the objects having fluxes of less than 10^-17Wm^-2. Generally, the flows are associated with Giant Molecular Cloud complexes and have a scale height of 25-30pc with respect to the Galactic Plane. We are able to assign potential source candidates to about half the objects. Typically, the flows are clustered in groups of 3-5 objects, within a radius of 5pc. These groups are separated on average by about half a degree, and 2/3rd of the entire survey area is devoid of outflows. We find a large range of apparent outflow lengths from 4arcsec to 130arcsec. If we assume a distance of 3kpc, only 10% of all outflows are of parsec scale. There is a 2.6sigma over abundance of flow position angles roughly perpendicular to the Galactic Plane.

IRAS 03063+5735: A BOWSHOCK NEBULA POWERED BY AN EARLY B STAR

Mid-infrared images from the Spitzer Space Telescope Galactic Legacy Infrared MidPlane Survey Extraordinaire program reveal that the infrared source IRAS 03063+5735 is a bowshock nebula produced by an early B star, 2MASS 03101044+5747035. We present new optical spectra of this star, classify it as a B1.5 V, and determine a probable association with a molecular cloud complex at V_LSR=-38 -- -42 km/s in the outer Galaxy near l=140.59 degr, b=-0.250 degr. On the basis of spectroscopic parallax, we estimate a distance of 4.0 +/-1 kpc to both the bowshock nebula and the molecular complex. One plausible scenario is that this a high-velocity runaway star impinging upon a molecular cloud. We identify the HII region and stellar cluster associated with IRAS 03064+5638 at a projected distance of 64 pc as one plausible birth site. The spectrophotometric distance and linkage to a molecular feature provides another piece of data helping to secure the ill-determined rotation curve in the outer Galaxy. As a by-product of spectral typing this star, we present empirical spectral diagnostic diagrams suitable for approximate spectral classification of O and B stars using He lines in the little-used yellow-red portion of the optical spectrum.

The cosmic-ray and gas content of the Cygnus region as measured inγ-rays by theFermiLarge Area Telescope

The Cygnus region hosts a giant molecular-cloud complex which actively forms massive stars. Interactions of cosmic rays with interstellar gas and radiation fields make it shine at gamma-ray energies. Several gamma-ray pulsars and other energetic sources are seen in this direction. In this paper we analyse the gamma-ray emission measured by the Fermi Large Area Telescope in the energy range from 100 MeV to 100 GeV in order to probe the gas and cosmic-ray content over the scale of the whole Cygnus complex. The signal from bright pulsars is largely reduced by selecting photons in their off-pulse phase intervals. We compare the diffuse gamma-ray emission with interstellar gas maps derived from radio/mm-wave lines and visual extinction data, and a global model of the region, including other pulsars and gamma-ray sources, is sought. The integral HI emissivity and its spectral energy distribution are both consistent within the systematics with LAT measurements in the interstellar space near the solar system. The average X=N(H2)/W(CO) ratio is consistent with other LAT measurements in the Local Arm. We detect significant gamma-ray emission from dark neutral gas for a mass corresponding to ~40% of that traced by CO. Despite the conspicuous star formation activity and large masses of the interstellar clouds, the cosmic-ray population in the Cygnus complex averaged over a few hundred parsecs is similar to that of the local interstellar space. (abridged)

TheHerschelview of massive star formation in G035.39–00.33: dense and cold filament of W48 undergoing a mini-starburst

The filament IRDC G035.39--00.33 in the W48 molecular complex is one of the darkest infrared clouds observed by \textit{Spitzer}. It has been observed by the PACS (70 and 160\,$\micron$) and SPIRE (250, 350, and 500\,$\micron$) cameras of the \textit{Herschel} Space Observatory as part of the W48 molecular cloud complex in the framework of the HOBYS key programme. The observations reveal a sample of 28 compact sources (deconvolved FWHM sizes $<$0.3 pc) complete down to $\sim$$5 \msun$ in G035.39--00.33 and its surroundings. Among them, 13 compact sources are massive dense cores with masses $>$$20 \msun$. The cloud characteristics we derive from the analysis of their spectral energy distributions are masses of $20-50 \msun$, sizes of 0.1--0.2 pc, and average densities of $2-20 \times 10^{5} \cmc$, which make these massive dense cores excellent candidates to form intermediate- to high-mass stars. Most of the massive dense cores are located inside the G035.39--00.33 ridge and host IR-quiet high-mass protostars. The large number of protostars found in this filament suggests that we are witnessing a mini-burst of star formation with an efficiency of $\sim$15% and a rate density of $\sim$$40 \msun\,$yr$^{-1}\,$kpc$^{-2}$ within $\sim$8 pc$^2$, a large area covering the full ridge. Part of the extended SiO emission observed towards G035.39--00.33 is not associated with obvious protostars and may originate from low-velocity shocks within converging flows, as advocated by previous studies.

The alignment of molecular cloud magnetic fields with the spiral arms in M33

The formation of molecular clouds, which serve as stellar nurseries in galaxies, is poorly understood. A class of cloud formation models suggests that a large-scale galactic magnetic field is irrelevant at the scale of individual clouds, because the turbulence and rotation of a cloud may randomize the orientation of its magnetic field. Alternatively, galactic fields could be strong enough to impose their direction upon individual clouds, thereby regulating cloud accumulation and fragmentation, and affecting the rate and efficiency of star formation. Our location in the disk of the Galaxy makes an assessment of the situation difficult. Here we report observations of the magnetic field orientation of six giant molecular cloud complexes in the nearby, almost face-on, galaxy M33. The fields are aligned with the spiral arms, suggesting that the large-scale field in M33 anchors the clouds.

Will the starless cores in Chamaeleon I and III turn prestellar?

Context. The nearby Chamaeleon molecular cloud complex is a good laboratory for studying the process of low-mass star formation because it consists of three clouds with very different properties. Chamaeleon III does not show any sign of star formation, while star formation has been very active in Chamaeleon I and may already be finishing.